https://doi.org/10.37815/rte.v34n1.889
Original paper - English
COVI=
D-19,
Migrants, Refugees, Mobile Workers:
Global Assessment
and Action Agenda
COVID-19, migrantes, refugiados, trabajadores móviles: evaluación global y agenda de acción<= o:p>
Patrick
Taran1
Olga Kadysheva1 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4810-89=
64
1
taran@globalmigrationpolicy.org, okadysheva@globalmigrationpolicy.org
Sent: = 2021/12/13<= o:p>
Accepted: 2022/03/04
Published: 2022/03/15
Abstract
Summary: Introduction,
Methodology, Challenges faced by refugees, migrants, host communities =
and
countries of residence, Need for urgent,
appropriate action by governments and all other actors, Overarching
normative obligations for treatment of migrants and refugees, A Checkl=
ist
of Practical Guidelines for action, legislation, policy and monitoring=
and
Conclusions. How
to cite: Taran, P. &
The COVID-19 pandem=
ic has
disproportionately affected millions of migrants, refugees, asylum-seekers,=
and
stateless persons as well as IDPs worldwide. At the same time, the dependen=
ce
of economies and societies on migrant and refugee labo=
ur
to perform essential work in such sectors as healthcare, transportation,
services, agriculture, food production and distribution, construction,
industry, commerce, and others became even more obvious. However, many poli=
cies
and actions addressing COVID-19 at the beginning of the pandemic were
established with little or no consideration for migrants and refugees,
resulting in excessive COVID cases, high mortality rates, unemployment, and
loss of livelihood across migrant and refugee populations. The paper argues
that a comprehensive and rights-based package of measures is needed for
effective response to the pandemic, relevant and proportionate to prevent t=
he
spread of coronavirus and allowing for people and economies to sustain
socio-economic development on local, national, and regional levels. Based on
in-depth review and critical analysis of literature as well as synthesis of
approaches and recommendations contained in guidance documents from
international organisations, the paper provides
policy lines and actions/action steps on COVID-19 and migrants and refugees=
. It
covers the interrelated issues of health and healthcare including vaccinati=
on;
non-discrimination and inclusion; social protection; employment; community
support and protection; gender; refugee specific measures; cross-border
mobility; data, narrative, and communications; and recovery. Only a
comprehensive package of measures that includes migrants, refugees, asylum
seekers, stateless persons and IDPs in national and local COVID-19 responses
can possibly solve challenges posed by the pandemic in our global, mobile, =
interconnected and interdependent world.
=
Keywords: migration, health, migrant workers, asylum seekers, stateless person=
s,
internally displaced persons (IDPs), human rights, discrimination, social p=
rotection,
labour, employment.
Resumen
La pandemia de COVID-19 ha
afectado de manera desproporcionada a millones de migrantes, refugiados,
solicitantes de asilo y apátridas, así como a desplazados internos en todo =
el
mundo. La dependencia de las economías y sociedades de la mano de obra de
migrantes y refugiados para realizar el trabajo esencial se volvió aún más
obvio en sectores como la salud, el transporte, los servicios, la producció=
n y
distribución de alimentos, la construcción, la industria, el comercio y otr=
os.
Sin embargo, muchas políticas y acciones que abordan la COVID-19 se
establecieron con poca o ninguna consideración por los migrantes y refugiad=
os,
lo que resultó en casos de COVID excesivos, altas tasas de mortalidad,
desempleo y pérdida de medios de vida por muchas poblaciones de migrantes y
refugiados. El documento argumenta que se necesita un paquete integral de
medidas relevantes y proporcionadas, basado en los derechos, para prevenir =
la
propagación del coronavirus y permitir que los pueblos y las economías
sostengan el desarrollo socio-económico a nivel local, nacional y regional.
Basado en un análisis crítico de la literatura y la síntesis de recomendaci=
ones
de organizaciones internacionales e informes de expertos, el documento
proporciona líneas de política y acciones sobre la COVID-19, migrantes y re=
fugiados.
Cubre las cuestiones interrelacionadas de la salud, la asistencia sanitaria=
y
la vacunación; la no-discriminación e inclusión; protección social; empleo;
apoyo y protección de las comunidades; género; medidas para refugiados;
movilidad transfronteriza; datos, narrativa y comunicaciones; y recuperació=
n.
Solo un paquete integral de medidas que incluya a migrantes, refugiados,
apátridas y desplazados internos en las respuestas la COVID-19 puede resolv=
er
los desafíos levantados por la pandemia en nuestro mundo móvil, interconect=
ado
e interdependiente.
Introduction
COVID-19 has shown us that excluding and
discriminating against groups of people makes us all weaker. To build socie=
ties
that can be more resilient and resistant to all kinds of shocks, we need to=
act
with greater solidarity. Instead of repeating harmful narratives of fear and
exclusion, it’s time to welcome people into our communities, to reimagine o=
ur
collective future.
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Mi=
chelle
Bachelet (OHCHR, 2020b).
As demonstra=
ted
worldwide since the outset of the COVID-19 pandemic, many response measures
and/or the lack thereof, created compounded health, social and economic ris=
ks,
and costs of the still-spreading coronavirus.
Major challenge arises not only from the
pandemic itself but from measures by some government, employer and private
actors vis-a-vis migrants, refugees, IDPs and stateless persons. These have
included fear-based and non-science-grounded actions resulting in seriously
detrimental consequences for economies, businesses, health, social welfare =
and
social cohesion of communities and entire countries.
Without –or despite– accurate assessment of risks and scientifically soun=
d and
context-appropriate approaches, governments worldwide continue to take poor=
ly
informed and reactive measures often based on narrow political consideratio=
ns
that exacerbate privation and suffering faced by populations, particularly
migrants and refugees, as well as aggravating economic costs.
The =
big
picture
At
the beginning of 2020, there were an estimated 281 million foreign-born peo=
ple
residing in countries other than where they were born or held original
citizenship (UNDESA, 2021a) representing about 3.6 percent of the
world’s population – a proportion that has only “inched up” since 1970 when=
the
estimated migrant population was 2.5% of the global total. 73 per cent of
international migrants worldwide were between the ages of 20 and 64 years,
compared to 57 per cent for the total world population (UNDESA,
2021b).
That UN global estimate includes refugee=
s and
asylum-seekers but cannot account for internally displaced persons (IDPs) w=
ho
remain on the territory of their country of origin. Latest UNHCR figures as=
of
mid-2021 (updated 10 November 2021) counted 26.6 million refugees, including
5.7 million Palestinians under UNRWA (United Nation Relief and Works Agency)
mandate, 4.4 million asylum seekers and 3.9 million Venezuelans displaced
abroad not counted among refugees or asylum-seekers (UNHCR, 2021e).
At least 10 million people in the world today are stateless (UNHCR, n.d.). UNHCR also estimated a total of 48 million internally displaced persons (IDPs) as of
end-2020 (UNHCR, 2021e).
Many
other foreign persons in tempor=
ary,
short-term, or seasonal employment and/or residence situations are not coun=
ted
in UN and other statistics on inter=
national
migrants when their sojourn is less than a year and/or if they retain
formal residency in another country. The UN estimate does not include perso=
ns
visiting a country for short periods such as tourists, nor commercial or
transportation workers who have not changed their place of residence, nor
itinerant cross-border traders, several hundred thousand of whom circulate
across respectively Eastern, Southern and Western Africa while remaining
legally resident in their home country (Taran, =
2018).
The movement of people across borders remains a misunderstood and underestimated lifeline for peoples, countries, and economies worldwide. In 2019, international migrant workers constituted 4.9 per cent of the global labour force (ILO, 2021). M= ost industrialized and many developing countries rely on foreign-born migrant workers for 5 to 20 percent of their workforces= . The share of migrant workers in total labour force = by region is: 41.4 per cent overall in Arab States –up to 90 per cent in sever= al GCC countries; 20.0 per cent in Northern America; 18.4 per cent in Northern, Southern and Western Europe; 9.4 per cent in Eastern Europe; and 12 per cen= t in Central and Western Asia (data for 2019) (ILO, 2021a). As the pandemic situation has highlight= ed, many essential workers in healthcare= , food production, processing and distribution, transportation, etc. are migrant workers.
While the COVID-19 situation has unprecedented aspects, international normative standards, ample scientific knowledge, and experien= ce from previous pandemics provide the basis for policy and action to meet emergency needs, sustain economic activity and social welfare, and shape recovery.
Meth=
odology
This article is based on a broad review =
of
relevant literature from early 2020 to December 2021, also drawing on earli=
er
works on health and pandemics. Its scope is inclusive of asylum seekers and
stateless persons and refers to internally displaced persons (IDPs) whose
situations and treatment are often similar to th=
ose of
refugees and international migrants.
The situation narrative and critical ana=
lysis
were derived from and built on information and perspective garnered across a
broad range of contemporary literature, including scientific reports,
international institutional documents and web-posts, authoritative journal
articles and current reporting in periodicals considered credible. The
comprehensive agenda of policy lines and actions/action steps on COVID-19 a=
nd
migrants and refugees was synthesized and elaborated from guidance and reco=
mmendations
by international organisations across the UN sy=
stem
and others, using a recombinant approach applied in preparing international
common agenda and consensus documents and recommendations. The extensive
review, analysis and comprehensive synthesis of collective recommendations
sought to cover interrelated issues and challenges of health and healthcare
including non-discrimination and inclusion; vaccination; social protection;
employment; community support and protection; gender; cross-border mobility;
refugee specific measures; data; narrative; communication; and recovery.
This article is framed as a policy brief to support government authorities, parliamentarians, city governments, social partners, civil soc= iety organisations and refugee and migrant actors wi= th concrete practical guidance for effective, rights-based lines of action to: protect people’s safety and health; provide attention to health and sustena= nce for migrants, migrant workers, refugees, asylum-seekers, mobile workers, internally displaced persons (IDPs) and stateless persons; ensure protectio= n of human rights, including health-related rights and labo= ur rights of all concerned; and enable economic and social recovery.
An earlier version of this research was
published in May 2021 in Spanish in the journal Revist=
a
Compendium: Cuadernos de E=
conomía
y Administración (Taran and
Solorzano, 2021).
Chal=
lenges
faced by refugees, migrants, host communities and countries of residence
An Overview
Tens of millions of migrants, refugees, = asylum seekers, IDPs and stateless persons worldwide were from the outset among th= ose most severely affected by the COVID-19 global pandemic worldwide. Millions = more temporary, short-term, seasonal, and itinerant migrants are similarly affec= ted. According to UNHCR, more than 134 countries hosting refugees have been affe= cted by the pandemic and reported local transmission of COVID-19 (UNHCR, 2021b). 85 per cent of the world’s refugees are hosted in developing countries. The Least Developed Countries provide asylum to 27 per cent of the total (UNHCR,= 2021e). “The various population gro= ups face very different living conditions depending on their legal status, demograph= ic characteristics, the country where they live, their location in camps or in urban settings, among other factors” (Vishwanath, Alik= -Lagrange and Aghabarari, 2020, p.6).
However, many measures, policies and act=
ions
addressing COVID-19 were and continue to be taken with little or no
consideration for or attention to migrants, refugees, asylum seekers, IDPs =
or
stateless persons. Nor for the labour and econo=
mic
consequences of restricting cross border/international mobility. Excluding
those groups, who are part of the society and key economic actors in initial
and ongoing responses has had dire consequences not only for these populati=
ons,
but also on human, health, social, and economic conditions for countries of
residence and for countries of origin.
Perhaps
most serious are measures formal or informal, intention=
al
or not, that exclude foreigners, migrants, refugees, asylum seekers, statel=
ess
persons and/or displaced persons from healthcare and from coronavirus
prevention and treatment. Such measures range from ‘citizens only’ restrict=
ions
to immigration control enforcement leaving migrants and refugees –particula=
rly
those in irregular status and/or with non-extended permits– fearful of
approaching health care providers due to lack of documentation and fear of
discrimination and/or deportation. Especially problematic has been deportat=
ion
of Covid-carrying persons from detention or job dismissal, without informing
them, the transporter, or health authorities.
Health care services have been unavailable, inaccessi=
ble,
or non-existent in practical terms for migrants and refugees in many places
even when they do have legal status. Health care may be non-existent or
prohibitively expensive for those not legally resident on the territory, who
may also fear coming forward for testing or treatment because of the risk of
detention or deportation for irregularities in immigration status. Similarl=
y,
they may face difficulties in obtaining information on risks and mitigation
measures due to language barriers and communications not accessible by them=
.
Measures widely imposed included closing=
borders
and restricting or stopping altogether movement of migrants, as well as
refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless persons despite adverse consequence=
s to
food production, health-work, aged- and child-care, transportation and othe=
r essential
work and to recovery –as well as to refugee protection; lockdown measures t=
hat
left migrants, refugees, IDPs, asylum seekers and stateless persons highly
exposed to infection and to transmission; retaining foreign workers in
‘essential work’ but with little or no personal protection equipment (PPE) =
in
exposure to high risk working and living situations; expulsion and deportat=
ion
from territories of foreigners, including deportation flights to homelands
despite air travel shut-down and the risk of refoulement of refugees and as=
ylum
seekers.
These consequences included absence of n=
eeded
health care workers, high infection and death rates among immigrant, migrant
and refugee health care workers, reduction of food production due to absenc=
e of
migrant workers for crucial planting, cultivating, harvesting, and processi=
ng
activity for which local and native workers are not available, and constrai=
nts
in transportation where many trucking, bus and railway workers are migrants
and/or operate internationally.
The economic costs of constraints on mob=
ility of
workers at all skills levels continues to debilitate entire sectors of
economies in countries across Africa, Eurasia, Europe, and the Americas,
particularly those more dependent on international mobility of people to
provide labour and skills. Seasonal agricultural
work, food production, health care, construction, local/regional industrial
production and marketing, distribution of goods and services are among essential sectors adversely affect=
ed in
many countries.
Migrant Workers
“The COVID-19 pandemic has had a devastating impact on migrant workers and their access to decent work. Beyond the immediate public health crisis, response measures including lockdowns and border closures had specific implications for the hiring and employment conditions of migrant workers. These measures increased the [risks faced by] migrant workers at t= he same time as economic and social dependence on migrant workers who deliver essential services such as healthcare and sanitation has deepened” (Jones, = Mudaliar and Piper, 2021, = p.vii)
Reports by human rights monitoring group=
s on
situations in a number of countries described
pre-existing and new conditions faced by migrants, refugees and forcibly
displaced people worldwide that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. As a cou=
ntry
report by a human rights monitoring body put it, “Migrant workers... face a
range of entrenched abuses from employers, including deceptive recruitment
practices, wage theft, passport confiscation, unsafe living and working
conditions, and excessive work demands, which indicate forced labor and vio=
late
domestic and international standards. The spread of Covid-19 and the lockdo=
wn
to contain it has exacerbated these conditions, as workers face job loss,
unpaid leave, reduced salaries, and forced work without pay” (Human Rights
Watch, 2020a).
Dire situations for migrant workers were=
reported
in Middle East and Gulf countries, also in countries across Asia, Africa,
Eurasia, Europe, North and South America and the Pacific region. Literally
millions of migrant workers were arbitrarily and immediately dismissed from
work across the Middle East region and elsewhere. In some countries, migran=
ts
were physically expelled from or compelled to leave cities or places where =
they
were living and working; drastic compelled quarantines in place –such as
“sealing off” migrant neighbourhoods, migrant
dormitories/living quarters and/or industrial areas (Middle East Eye, 2020)=
.
The “economic and social challenges emer= ging from the COVID-19 pandemic cast a new light on services at the core of functioning local economies. Sectors such as food processing, delivery, or health care are vital for the continuity of economic activity... During the pandemic, these sectors were defined as ‘essential’. The crisis has initiat= ed a new reflection of essential services and the people that work in them, the so-called ‘key workers’. In particular, the role of migrants who often work= in low-paid but vital occupations has gained greater recognition across OECD” (OECD, 2020b, p.2).
“Migrants … account for 14% of key workers across European region= s, 5% from EU countries and 9% from non-EU countries. … Key sectors such as distribution, food processing, or health care strongly rely on migrants for their workers, especially in urban environments. … Across 31 European countries, “migrants play a crucial role in health care, where 23% of all doctors and 14% of nurses are foreign-born. In cities such as London or Brussels, around half of all doctors and nurses are migrants. Capital regio= ns have the highest share of migrant k= ey workers (20%). Similarly, cities rely more on migrant key workers than other areas, especially in low-skilled occupations where migrants make up 25% of workers” (OECD, 2020b, p.1-2).
According to OECD research, “in all countries for which data are available, immig=
rants’
unemployment (in 2020) increased more, compared to their native-born peers.=
The
largest increases for immigrants were observed in Canada, Norway, Spain,
Sweden, and the United States. In Sweden, almost 60% of the initial increas=
e in
unemployment fell on immigrants” (OECD, 2020a). “Unemployment and underemployment data [in Canada] in =
April
2020 shows that mostly affected were those with temporary work, with less t=
han
one year at their job and not covered by a union or collective agreement” (Triandafyllidou and Nalbandian, =
2020,
p.5) –situations common for many migrant workers
worldwide.
Multiple Mitigation Measures
However, numerous countries around the world adopted
contingency measures to keep systems operational and mitigate impacts on
migrants and citizens (EMN, 2021). While many countries
imposed restrictions on admission and entry of migrants at the outse=
t of
the pandemic, emergency measures allowing mobility for “essential workers” =
were
quickly put in place at borders around the world to ensure that migrant wor=
kers
including frontier, seasonal and transportation workers needed for agricult=
ure,
food production and processing, transportation and healthcare could cross
borders despite lock-downs, confinement, “no travel” measures or closed
borders.
EU countries and others allowed for continued admissi= on of workers for essential occupational sectors, notably health, agriculture, and transport. Non-EU OECD countries also identified health, agriculture, and f= ood security as essential sectors; support for critical infrastructure was cite= d by some countries (EMN, 2021). For example, while entry to Canada of high-skil= led foreign workers was halted at the start of pandemic restrictions, migrant workers in the Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program were exempted from restrictions and the Federal Government quickly introduced special arrangem= ents to bring foreign workers to Canadian farms and fisheries (Hennebry and KC, 2020; Tr= iandafyllidou and Nalbandian, 2020).
In a number of countries, = measures were taken to mitigate effects of the pandemic for migrants already on territories, particularly migrant workers, such as to ensure that those affected by travel restrictions or restrictions on immigration services did= not fall into irregular status. “In EU Member States and Norway, these included automatic extension of residence permits, tolerated stays, removal of the obligation to leave, and/or the suspension/ extension of procedural deadlin= es ... Non-EU OECD countries also made similar efforts to ensure that migrants= did not fall into an irregular situation, for example, in the US, where from Ma= rch 2020, timely online requests for extension of stay were possible to mitigate the effects of COVID-19” (EMN, 2021, p.1).
To address labour shortag=
es,
especially in seasonal activities, some EU Member States implemented measur=
es
to facilitate employment access for third-country nationals already on the
territory. “Regularisation of third-country nat=
ionals
employed in certain key sectors was permitted in a limited number of cases,
both in EU and non-EU OECD countries” (EMN, 2021, p.2).
“Most EU Member States reported that COVID-19 related healthcare was available for all migrants, with costs met from public health insurance or social security and/or from State public health funds. For reg= ular [authorized] migrants who experienced a drop or loss in income, underlying rules on access to general healthcare were maintained, allowing access to general healthcare in most reporting Member States” (EMN, 2021, p.2).
Mobile, cross-border, and seasonal worker=
s
Millions of mobile cross border workers,
seasonal and temporary workers were immediately affected by lockdowns and
border closings at the outset of the pandemic–and some remain so in February
2022, two years on. The immediate result and the continuing consequence in =
many
situations, was large economic cost to local economies dependent on that
Some countries were effectively denied s= upply of and/or outlets for distribution of local and national production, whether agricultural, artisanal, or industrial, including basic foodstuffs, health equipment, medications and supplies, and other essential goods. This was the case in regional economic communi= ties (RECs) in Central, Eastern, Western Africa, in the MERCOSUR South American common market area, in Central America, in the Caribbean region, and South-= East Asia as well as across the integrated economies of Europe in and beyond the= EU and the European Free Trade Association area.
However, “Germany, Spain, and other coun=
tries in
Europe (such as Switzerland) have gone to extraordinary lengths to admit
seasonal agricultural workers from other countries (such as Romania and
Bulgaria) or further afield (such as Morocco), including chartering flights=
and
exemptions from travel restrictions” for passage through other countries wh=
en
borders were officially closed. (Hooper, 2021 citing Hooper and le Coz, 202=
0).
Canada –much of whose agriculture depends on seasonal workers– engaged in s=
imilar
efforts to bring workers from usual source countries including Guatemala, <=
span
class=3DGramE>Jamaica and Mexico.
Refugees, IDPs, stateless persons and
asylum-seekers
Refugees, asylum seekers, IDPs and state=
less
persons, especially those in crowded camp situations, with dire sanitary and
hygienic conditions and the impossibility of social distancing, are
particularly at risk of coronavirus infection. Major challenges include abs=
ence
of health care, insufficient food, crowded living quarters, absence of runn=
ing
water, poor underlying health, etc. UN news, in August 2020, reported that =
the
World Food Programme (WFP) was forced to reduce=
its
food and cash assistance for refugees in Eastern Africa by up to 30 per cent
and feared that reductions could worsen in coming months unless urgent
additional funding is received (UN news, 2020). These conditions exacerbate
coronavirus transmission, serious illness resulting, and absence of, treatm=
ent
for forcibly displaced populations.
The COVID-19 pandemic had far-reaching effects on all= areas related to asylum and migration throughout 2020 and continuing into 2022. The COVID-19 pandemic r= esulted in a drastic reduction in refugee movement across borders and in resettleme= nt due to border closures, travel restrictions and pushbacks. As of May 2020, nearly 100 countries had temporarily denied access to their territory; by M= ay 2021 almost 60 countries still denied access (Tanner, = Mugera, Tabasso et al, 2021).
While many countries in Europe had lifted travel
restrictions and reopened borders by July 2020, mobility for refugees and
asylum seekers remained impeded. Resettlement departures were halted for the
first time in history and visa processes for complementary pathways for
admission of refugees significantly delayed. People in refugee-like situati=
ons
transiting through South-Eastern Europe experienced entry bans in several
countries. Pushbacks on land and at sea have been reported in 2021 along
frontiers between Greece and Turkey, as well as at borders of Balkan and
Central European countries and recently at borders between Belarus with Pol=
and
and Lithuania.
Pushbacks were also reported in African, Asian
and Middle Eastern countries as well as at borders of Mexico, Guatemala, and
the USA. While some pushbacks have not explicitly cited COVID as a
justification, the US executive order establishing push-back of potential
refugee-asylum claimants on that country’s southern border explicitly cited=
a
national health emergency justification.
Refugee protection itself has been undermined. Border=
closures
and restrictions on international mobility have prevented refugees escaping
from situations of persecution and refugee movement to safe havens. Access =
to
asylum remains a vital, but threatened right.
Government measures in several countries, in some cases endorsed by
legislation, restricted access to the country by refugees and asylum seeker=
s.
People arriving at borders seeking safe haven ha=
ve
been returned to neighbouring countries, told to
apply for asylum at consulates and embassies or to wait elsewhere–often
indefinitely, for claims to be processed. “While States have a sovereign du=
ty
to protect public health, measures that restrict access to asylum should be
temporary, necessary and proportionate and respe=
ct the
prohibition on returns to persecution and danger. ... Externalization can
amount to warehousing asylum seekers indefinitely in isolated places, ‘out =
of
sight out of mind’, exposing them to danger and chain refoulement” (Triggs, 2020).
Health and well-being of refugees, IDPs, stateless pe=
rsons
and asylum-seekers remains the second main issue. Inability to maintain even
basic hygienic conditions at vastly overcrowded refugee camps in many place=
s,
notably reception and identification centers (RICs) in Europe, led to severe
and prolonged quarantines in those camps and centers. Inadequate conditions=
for
basic health and hygiene prevail in many IDP and refugee camp facilities,
particularly in African and Middle East and without considering additional
measures for masking and distancing. Migrant and refugee detention faciliti=
es
also became major hotspots of coronavirus transmission in many countries. I=
DPs
and stateless persons face increased challenges in accessing healthcare due=
to
absence of documentation, lack of availability of services and discriminati=
on.
Surveys from eight countries, including Bangladesh,
Ethiopia, Iraq, and Yemen, showed a deterioration in employment, food secur=
ity
and access to health and education for refugees (Tanner, Mugera,
Tabasso et al, 2021). The pandemic-fostered-ris=
e in
gender-based violence and violence against children, and the triggered soci=
etal
stresses have hit people of concern to UNHCR hardest (UNHCR, 2021c).
“Modelling and simulation analyses conducted in speci= fic areas estimate an increase in poverty among the forcibly displaced and their host communities as a result of the simultaneous effects of COVID-19 and other aggravating socio-economic factors. In Lebano= n, due to the occurrence of COVID-19 during a deep economic and social crisis,= the number of Syrian refugees below the national poverty line is expected to increase by 430,000 in 2021 compared to the period just prior to the pandem= ic” (Tanner, Mugera, Tabasso et al, 2021, p.1).
Furthermore, at least 12 million people with disabilities are forcibly displaced worldwide according to UNHCR, while the real number may = be higher. “Forced displacement disproportionately affects people with disabilities. They are often at higher risk of violence, discrimination, neglect, gender-based violence, exploitation and abuse, face barriers to ac= cess basic services, and are often excluded from education and livelihood opportunities,” said Gillian Triggs, UNHCR’s Assistant High Commissioner for Protection (UNH= CR, 2021d).
Countries of Origin
Further complicating the tragedy has bee=
n the
dilemmas faced by millions of people in migrant origin countries who were
dependent on the incomes and remittances of migrant worker family members
abroad rendered unemployed and, in some cases, deported to homelands with f=
ew
possibilities to be reintegrated in remunerative activity. This was aggrava=
ted
by local home country and community perceptions that returning migrant work=
ers
–members of their own families and communities– are vectors of COVID and sh=
ould
be kept away (Asharq Al-Awsat, 2020).
During the first wave, several migrant w=
orker
origin countries refused return/re-entry by their=
own nationals, leaving
citizens expelled or deported from other countries in a quasi-stateless
situation and their families destitute. However, many countries organized
repatriation efforts in the early months of the pandemic, including special
transportation arrangements for citizens abroad. Most countries continue to
permit re-entry of citizens and lawful residents despite border closures.
However, migrant worker countries of origin in Africa, Asia and the Americas
initially had few or no measures for testing and advising returnees upon or
after arrival, leaving repatriated migrants to return to home communities
across the countries when some were, usually unknowingly, coronavirus
vectors.
However, data on the actual number of wo=
rkers
returned or deported to homelands remains non-existent, as is data on how m=
any
have since redeployed or returned abroad. Anecdotal data suggests that the
actual numbers of workers returned to country-of-origin homelands was a sma=
ll
proportion of the global ‘migrant’ workforce.
Global remittance estimates for 2020 are=
$706
billion compared with $722 billion in 2019, a reduction by only 2.2 percent,
whereas in mid-2020 predictions were that remittances would fall by more th=
an
15%. The current forecast for 2021 is $751 billion (Ra=
tha,
Ju Kim, Plaza, Seshan et al, 2021). In 2021,
remittance flows to low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are projected =
to
reach $589 billion, registering a 7.3 percent increase over 2020. The recov=
ery
in 2021 follows the resilience of flows seen in 2020, when remittance flows=
to
low- and middle-income countries recorded only a modest 1.7 percent decline=
to
$549 billion compared to 2019 ($559 billion) despite one of the deepest glo=
bal
recessions on record. Remittances currently represent more than three times=
the
value of official development assistance and, excluding China, remittances =
are
more than 50 percent higher than foreign direct investment, highlighting the
importance of remittance flows in providing for local sustenance in recipie=
nt
countries during periods of economic hardship (Ratha,
Ju Kim, Plaza, Seshan et al, 2021).
Labor and economic problems getting worse=
“The Covid-19 pandemic is not only havin= g a seismic impact on global public health but also causing chaos for the econo= my, with supply chain disruptions and labor shortages a big problem for busines= ses around the world” (Ellyatt, 2021). Supply bottl= enecks and shortages of raw materials, components, and consumer goods remain widespread in February 2022, and have worsened in recent months. One authoritative assessment by MPI highlighted, “As European countries seek to revive their economies in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, an acute labor shortage in a variety of sectors risks stopping the recovery in its tracks” (Hooper, 2021). Especially concerning is that “many of the supply and labor shortage issues are expected to last for many years to come” (C. Tang in Po= pa, Ford and Schaller, 2021, p.3), a USA assessment widely shared elsewhere.
The labor shortages are in large part at= tributed to the COVID-19 pandemic, its direct impacts, response measures that initia= lly shut down labor mobility worldwide, and continuing or reimposed restriction= s. The impact is serious, constricting supply, production, and distribution “f= rom automobiles to appliances to toothpaste” in the US for example. US employers specifically cite constraints in immigration as a major impediment to resol= ving the current lack of workers for jobs unfilled due to pandemic related facto= rs, including workers unable to come back to work because they’re caring for fa= mily sick with COVID-19, are sick with the virus themselves, or lack childcare (Popa, Ford and Schaller, 2021). “Many workers are also leaving their jobs = in record numbers and are delaying coming back to work. For example, in August (2021), 4.3 million Americans quit their jobs” in the Great Resignation as it is being called (ibid). Subsequent mont= hs saw similar levels of job leaving in the USA. Reports from the UK in the fa= ll of 2021 reported transportation delays and breakdowns resulting in widespre= ad fuel shortages at distribution stations, empty supermarket shelves, ‘dry’ p= ubs across the country unable to obtain beer, and pork and poultry unprocessed = and un-marketed, all attributed to absences of workers. A shortage of 100,000 l= orry drivers was widely evoked, a consequence of departure of many truck drivers= in Britain natives of EU countries who departed after the coincident double wh= am of Brexit and COVID and could not be replaced.
Illustrative of situations facing many countries, “Even before Singapore stopped entries from India and other South Asian nations, departures and tighter travel rules were already keeping for= eign workers away from the country… the crunch has led to delays of construction projects by as much as a year, resulting in a surge of 30 per cent in the p= rice of labour and sparking worries over excessive workloads” (DT Next, 2021). Construction delays were seen to risk "bad= ly disrupted" housing, hospital and transit li= ne projects, slowed real estate sales, stalled industrial and commercial facil= ity openings, and weaker consumption. Furthermore, construction industry groups warned that the current workforce is "already working at maximum capac= ity, increasing the risks of workplace incidents" (DT Next, 2021). Meanwhil= e, Russia’s Deputy Prime Minister Marat Khusnullin= said in July 2021 that construction sites in Russia were short of 1.5-2 million people and called the situation “a catastrophic shortage of workers” (Hashimova, 2021); much of construction labour in Russia was provided by migrant workers from Central Asian countries, man= y went or were sent home after the outset of the pandemic.
While some supply and production delays =
and
shortages and their economic consequences are attributed to transport
impediments or supply chain interruptions, most assessments reveal that lac=
k of
and departure of workers combined with migration restrictions are major fac=
tors
–notably in key sectors of agriculture, construction, food processing,
healthcare, and transportation heavily dependent on foreign or immigrant
workers in many industrialised countries. Forei=
gn
workers compelled to leave from countries at the outset have been impeded by
COVID restrictions and anti-immigration measures such as Brexit in the UK f=
rom
returning or arriving. The challenges are complex; some factors pre-date the
COVID pandemic and others, such as more people taking early retirement, lea=
ving
jobs or the workforce altogether, are prompted or exacerbated by the pandem=
ic
situation.
The consequences of labour
shortages in large part deriving from COVID-19 and subsequent mobility barr=
iers
and constraints affect everyone. As Bloomberg analysts put it: “Robots may
replace us eventually, but for now COVID-19 has revealed both how desperate
businesses are for workers of the human variety and the broader economic
consequences of that desperation. Companies are raising wages to attract
talent, which in turn is helping boost inflation, hitting 6.2% in the U.S. =
last
month and currently running at 8.1% in Russia” (Flanders and Sasso, 2021).
Discrimination and xenophobia
A sharp and generalized rise in racist/xenophobic discourse and violence targeting foreigners, migrants, refugees, asylum seekers, IDPs and stateless persons = in context of COVID is reported worldwide. Manifestations include “violence, discrimination, arbitrary denial of services, heightened exclusion or other forms of disparate negative impact in the COVID-19 crisis against minorities including Roma, people of African Descent, people of Asian descent, refugee= s, asylum seekers, migrants and stateless persons, internally displaced persons and religious minorities, as well as other persons and groups exposed to st= igma and/or discrimination such as LGBTI people, indigenous peoples, as well as based on caste” (UN Network Racial Discrimination, 2020, p.2). UNHCR assess= ed that xenophobic messages on social media, in the news = or in official discourse led to violence and discrimination against non-nationals including incidents of eviction, denial of medical service, or expulsion fr= om hotels. (UNHCR, 2020b). “The COVID-19 pandemic has created a heightened risk of discrimination and exclusion of marginalized individuals, groups and communities” (UN Network Racial Discrimination, 2020, p.1).
Horrific
treatment was reported in several countries. In a GCC country, more than 20=
,000
migrant workers, predominantly from Bangladesh, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Sri
Lanka, and Sudan, were concentrated into “squalid desert camps”, 50 to 200
persons sheltered in the same spaces with no running water and overflowing
sewage. Local security forces reportedly shot tear gas, stun grenades and
rubber bullets at migrant detainees who protested, while an actress and act=
or
respectively called for foreigners' deportation and to "throw them into
the desert" (Ullah, 2020).
Migrants and others presumed to be forei= gners have faced deadly violence. Reports emerged in August 2020 of dozens of Afr= ican migrants who had been shot on both sides of a border in the Middle East in April, with COVID 19 fears cited as a pretext (Human Rights Watch, 2020b). = News reports and monitoring bodies have reported increases in violent attacks –s= ome deadly– on persons of Chinese or other Asian appearance across Africa, the Americas and Europe. UNHCR offices also reported increasing incidents of discrimination, stigmatization and xenophobia against refugees and displaced people, exacerbating tensions with local communities. Lockdowns and increas= ed family tensions also led to spikes in gender-based violence across the worl= d (UNHCR, 2020b).
“There has also been a proliferation of conspiracy th= eories and hate- or bias-based discourse in connection with COVID-19, including wi= th anti-Semitic, anti-Muslim, anti-Roma (based on anti-Gy= psyism), or other racist, xenophobic or sectarian subtext= s. Narratives stressing geography rather than medical terminology to refer to COVID-19 are stigmatizing, and encourage racist or xenophobic attitudes and attacks, including against persons and groups who are forcibly displaced and stateless who may be at greater risk during the pandemic” (UN Network Racial Discrimination, 2020, p.2). Migrants, refugees, displaced persons and other marginalized groups have been accused of spreading the virus since the outbreak of the pandemic in early 2020 (Reuters, 2020; WHO, 2021).
Such actions “exacerbate fear and worsen the situatio= ns of various minority groups, peopl= e of African descent, people of Asian descent, or people considered foreigners – persons already facing threats of discrimination or exclusion” (UN Network Racial Discrimination, 2020, p.2).
Gender: migrant women and COVID-19
The impacts of COVID-19 and ill-consider= ed responses have been highly gendered, particularly for migrant and refugee w= omen and girls. The pandemic highlighted risks women migrants face in employment= , at home and in day-to-day activity. As migrant women tend to be concentrated in low-skilled, low-paid and informal jobs, they co= ntinue to face higher risks of job and income loss in the pandemic-provoked econom= ic crisis (Rakotonarivo= , 2020). Ma= ny migrant women were and remained employed in health care and other essential work on the frontlines of the pandemic. Almost 70% of health workers across OECD member countries are women (OECD, 2020c). In many countries, women migrant workers constitute the majorit= y of health workers (Foley and Piper, 2020). Studies conducted in Spain, Italy a= nd the US demonstrated that between 69-75.5% of healthcare worker COVID-19 infections were in women (UN Women, 2020b).
Most migrant domestic workers are women; many lost jobs since the outset of the pandemic and had to return to their countries of origin. Travel bans and restrictions put those who had lost jobs and residence permits in a dire situation. Many faced delays or non-payment of wages, as well as violence a= nd harassment by former employers. Those who kept their jobs generally found themselves overworked as their employers were more often at home. There were reported cases of being exposed to increased levels of stress and violence during confinement with their employers (Rakotonarivo, 2020).
Many women migrants are in essential occupations wh=
ere
physical distancing is difficult or impossible. Those in health care have h=
ad
to work longer hours to handle large influxes of COVID patients and cover f=
or
sick colleagues. Many women workers including migrants have faced significa=
ntly
increased family responsibilities related to care and education as a result of suspension of in-class schooling and
childcare services.
Domestic
violence against women and children has risen, while domestic violence in
migrant households is likely hugely under-reported. Violence against women =
is
already an epidemic with 137 women killed every day in the world by a family
member. Living in confinement and in times of economic stress increases the
risk of sexual exploitation and violence against women. Failing to take into account gendered dimensions in the response =
to the
pandemic not only exacerbated existing inequalities but created new ones
Migrant women, especially those in infor= mal work and or in undocumented situations, faced little or no social protection and faced difficulties obtaining health care, particularly sexual and reproduct= ive health care indeed already prior to the pandemic (UN Women, 2020a). Higher incidence of poverty and poor housing conditions compounding risks of infection, lack of social protection preventing access to healthcare or sick leave, and reductions in= or suspension of prenatal, birthing and maternity c= are by COVID-overwhelmed health systems are further challenges faced by female migrants and refugees as the pandemic continues (Rakotonarivo, 2020). An extensive survey of 170 Latin American migrant women in Valencia, Spain in = the fall of 2020 concluded that the social-health crisis resulting from COVID-19 aggravated the situation of migrant women, particularly those in irregular migration situations, with loss of employme= nt, deepening precarity and increasing anxiety and psycho-social distress inclu= ding depression. The report noted that the prior absence of minimal social protection reaching those most at risk left many migrant women without any support for basic needs, a situation made both more evident and worse by the pandemic and its consequences (Palop Lainez, Rueda and Salas, 2020).
Migrant and refugee women in countries w=
ith
gender discriminatory provision in nationality laws face exacerbated risks.=
In
many countries, refugees and IDPs depend upon the informal economy, and they
were among the first to feel the economic impacts of lockdowns. (UNHCR, 202=
0a)
Many lost their jobs, were evicted from their homes and their children were=
out
of school for many months due to COVID-19 impacts. Those who continued to w=
ork
often were and remain exposed to risks of COVID-19 infection and other
illnesses.
Twenty-five countries still have gender discriminatory provisions in their nationality laws denying women equal rig= hts with men to confer nationality to their children while at least fifty count= ries deny women and men equal rights to confer nationality to non-citizen spouse= s. (Global Campaign for Equal Nationality Rights, n.d.) Both types of le= gal gender discrimination can lead to statelessness and often result in family members of female citizens having to rely on visas to lawfully reside in the country of their mother or spouse. In consequence, children share the risks faced by immigrant and refugee parents of exclusion from health care, COVID prevention and mitigation efforts, as well as denial of economic assistance= , basic nutrition support and stimulus = needed for decent living, even to survive.
Vaccine Access
Eighty-five per cent of refugees, most I=
DPs, and
a large portion of migrants reside in developing countries. However, 80 per
cent of all vaccine doses have been given in high- and upper middle-income
countries (UNHCR, 2021f). Huge barriers impede vaccine access for many of t=
he
world’s refugees and migrants, notably vaccine unavailability along with
limited allocation and little implementation capacity. Systems to monitor
products and processes and identify and vaccinate people are weak in some
countries –and for marginalized populations in many others, while health
systems everywhere are struggling to maintain essential health services.
Several refugee-hosting countries have only reached very small proportions =
of
their population. UNHCR highlights that the activities strengthening support
for local actors and addressing misinformation are key to ensuring the
successful delivery of vaccines to local communities, especially those most
at-risk (UN/ Red Cross/Red Crescent, 2021). However, vaccine scarcity remai=
ns a
major barrier for refugees and IDPs as well as many migrants, while vaccine
hesitancy adds complications (UNHCR, 2021a).
Of the 160 countries that submitted info=
rmation
to UNHCR, 99% of them have either explicitly included refugees in their
vaccination plans or have provided that they wil=
l do
so. As of September 2021, UNHCR had confirmed vaccination of refugees and/or
other persons of concern in 121 countries. Vaccination campaigns commenced
across all 21 countries in West and Central Africa and all countries in the
region agreed to include refugees in their plans (UNHCR, 2021a).
Reliable data is crucial
The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the critical importance of reliable data in addressing local and global humanitarian, development and social challenges = and for informing the design and delivery of policies, services and interventio= ns. Data deficiencies are acute for populations particularly at risk in the COVID-19 pandemic, among refugees, migrants, stateless persons, mobile work= ers and IDPs. Knowledge on access to and availability of health care, decent work/employment, basic income, education, and freedom of movement remain woefully inadequate, making appropriate responses and adequate planning and delivery impossible (Tanner, Mugera, Tabasso et al, 2021). These populations, or portions = of them, are often not included in –or are deliberately excluded from– official statistics. National statistical systems, along w= ith other basic infrastructure notably for health are often weakest in the low-= and middle income- countries hosting more than 86% of the world’s refugees and = IDPs (Gillsäter, 2021).
Need for urgent, appropriate action by governments=
and
all other actors
Despite
huge challenges faced by millions of migrant workers, refugees, asylum-seek=
ers,
IDPs and stateless persons worldwide, most responses to the pandemic have b=
een
and remain unilateral, national, uncoordinated, and often counterproductive.
Coordination, cooperation, and common action internationally have been
conspicuously weak, slow, or non-existent.
A major concern is to ensure that respon= ses to the coronavirus pandemic are rights-respecting, appropriate and proportiona= l to both preventing the spread of coronavirus and ensuring peoples –and economi= es– abilities to sustain national, community and individual welfare, to anticip= ate sustainable recovery and to build f= orward together.
The response lines can be categorized in= to ten main themes, recognising that issues are inter-related, and that a sustainable and effective response requires a comprehensive approach with interdependent policy lines and action measures across all themes. No quick fixes will resolve the complex dilemmas, nor wo= rk on their own. Instead, seeking quic= k fix solutions will divert attention from obtaining political and public support= and resources to sustain the nationally and locally appropriate response packag= es that will make the difference o= ver time.
These thematic areas listed in Table 1(without an order of hierarchy beyond the first) are discussed below in part 6.
=
Table 1
A Checklist of Practical Guidelines on CO=
VID-19
and migrants and refugees
| Values-,
science- and experience-based policy lines and actions/action steps on COVID-19 =
and
migrants and refugees |
|
|
1. |
Right to heal=
th, health-relat=
ed
rights, health care, vaccine access |
|
2. |
Universal non-discrimination, inclusion, equality of treatment |
|
3. |
Community support and protection measures |
|
4. |
Immigration, movement across borders, non-refoulement |
|
5. |
Employment, migrant worker protection, migrant/refugee entrepreneur=
s |
|
6. |
Social
protection; access to schooling and education=
|
|
7. |
Refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, IDPs: specific measure=
s |
|
8. |
Gender-specific considerations |
|
9. |
Accurate and reliable data,
information, and knowledge |
|
10. |
Recovery, Building Forward
Together |
Table
by authors
Overarching
normative obligations for treatment of migrants and refugees
International human rights instruments and Internatio=
nal Labour Standards (ILO Conventions and Recommendations)
delineate rights and responsibilities imperative to address COVID-19, inclu=
ding
health-related rights and rights to social protection. Most countries have
ratified most of the nine core International Human Rights Treaties[1]
while all ILO member States are bound to respect the eight fundamental ILO
Conventions on non-discrimination/equality of treatment, abolition of force=
d labour, prevention of worst forms of child labour, and respect for freedom of association and
collective bargaining rights[2].
Other International Labour Standards provide
normative guidance on occupational safety and health (OSH), social protecti=
on,
and decent work as well as for
payment of wages and benefits to migrant workers including upon
return/expulsion.
Specific normative guidance on refugees, asylum-seeke= rs, and the prohibition of refoulement, especially relevant in this time of COVID-19, are provided by the 1951 Convention and 1967 Protocol Relating to= the Status of Refugees[3] one or both ratified by 149 countries. The right to seek asylum and the prohibition of discrimination are also articulated in the Universal Declara= tion of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Right= s.
The 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Statele= ss Persons and the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness[4] and the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement[5] provide normative guidan= ce for those groups especially at risk of COVID-19.
Three international Conventions provide legal standar= ds specifically on migration for employment, rights of migrant workers and migration governance (one or more ratified by nearly 100 countries): the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Wor= kers and Members of Their Families (ICRMW), 1990[6] (one of the nine core hu= man rights Instruments), ILO Convention on Migration for Employment (Revised), = 1949 (No. 97)[7] and the Migrant Workers (Supplementary Provisions) Convention, 1975 (No.143= )[8]. The ICRMW provides definitions for migrant workers, family members and spec= ific categories applicable to nearly all international migrants worldwide.
“All people i=
n the
territory or under the jurisdiction of a State, regardless of their nationa=
lity
or migration status, have an equal right to health. States have an obligati=
on
to guarantee the right to health to everyone without discrimination, includ=
ing
on grounds of nationality and migration status. The scarcity of resources is
not a sufficient basis for treating migrants’ healthcare needs differently”
(OHCHR, 2020a).
Although not =
legally
binding, the Global Compact on Refugees (UN General Assembly, 2018b) and the
Global Compact on Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (UN General Assembly,
2018a), both adopted in December 2018, provide further guidance on protecti=
on
of and assistance to, respectively, refugees and migrants.
A Checklist of
Practical Guidelines for action, legislation, policy
and monitoring
The following=
checklist provides values-, scienc=
e- and
experience-based policy lines and actions/action steps on COVID-19 and migr=
ants
and refugees. These guidelines consider social, political, legal, environme=
ntal
and health determinants and draw on lessons from other pandemics notably HIV
and AIDS, as well as knowledge and experience in salient reports on migrati=
on,
health epidemiology and pandemics (ILO, 2017; WHO, 2018; WHO, 2019). Thus,
there is also a comprehensive synthesis of approaches and recommendations
contained in thirty guidance documents by international organisations
on COVID-19 and migrants/refugees listed below in Table 2.
|
WHO |
ILO |
IOM |
UNHCR |
OHCHR |
UN Women |
IASC, IFRC, IPU |
|
WHO (World Health Organization), 2020 |
ILO (International Labour Organization), 2020=
a |
ICC-IOM (International
Chamber of Commerce- International Organization for Migration), 2020 |
UNHCR (UN Office of t=
he
High Commissioner for Refugees), 2020c |
OHCHR (Office of the UN High Commissioner for
Human Rights), 2020a |
UN Women, 2020a |
IASC (Inter-Agency Standing Committee), 2020<= o:p> |
|
WHO Europe, 2020 |
ILO, 2020b |
IOM, 2020 |
UNHCR, 2020d |
OHCHR, 2020=
c |
UN Women (Asia and the Pacific), 2020a |
IFRC (International
Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies) et al, 2020 |
|
WHO, 2021b |
ILO, 2021b |
IOM, 2021a |
UNHCR, 2020e |
OHCHR-ACHPR-Council of
Europe-IACHR, 2021 |
UN Women (Asia and the Pacific), 2020b |
IPU (Inter-Parliamentary Union), 2020a<= o:p> |
|
|
|
IOM, 2021b |
UNHCR, 2020f |
|
UN Women (Asia and the Pacific), 2020c |
IPU, 2020b |
|
|
|
IOM, n.d. |
UNHCR, 2020g |
|
UN Women (Asia and the Pacific), 2020d |
|
|
|
|
|
UNHCR, 2021g |
|
UN Women (Europe and Central Asia), 2020 |
|
=
Table by
authors
Health, the right to health and health-related rights and health care, including vaccine access.
Main con= cerns include inclusion of access by migrants and refugees to preventive, palliat= ive and curative health care, in particular reliable information, testing, treatment and vaccination for COVID-19, and occupational health and safety protection, notably personal protective equipment (PPE) for migrants in hea= lth, industrial, commercial, etc. employment. Response lines include:
· Include all migrants, ref= ugees, stateless persons, IDPs and asylum seekers in local and national COVID-19 testing, prevention, mitigation. vaccination and treatment.
· Waive fees for COVID-19 testing, vaccination and treatment, regardless of a person’s citizenship, nationality, or legal migration/resident status in the country.
· Provide information on prevention of spread, early diagnosis, vaccination, and treatment of COVID-= 19 in languages migrants, refugees and IDPs understand, in accessible formats.=
· Create information materials in migrant and refugee languages suitable for low literacy levels.
· Ensure timely and effective access to health facilities, goods, and services to al= l, regardless of immigration status, by legislative, policy, administrative, a= nd practical measures, including the flexibilization of movement and documenta= tion requirements.
· Create/maintain firewalls between health and immig= ration services, allowing stateless persons, persons at risk of statelessness, migrants in unauthorised situations and others = to access services without intimidation and fear that they will be identified = to immigration control authorities.
· Implement fully all neces= sary measures for protection and support of migrant workers in essential work, especially those in health-related and care wor= k, notably risk mitigation and prevention training, provision of PPE, and protective workspaces.
· Ensure inclusion of migra= nts, IDPs, stateless persons, asylum seekers and refugees on an equal basis in mental health and psychosocial support.
· Implement training programmes for healthcare professionals to build basic psychosocial helping skills to people directly or indirectly affected by COVID-19.
· Include migrants, IDPs, stateless persons, asylum seekers and refugees on an equal basis in vaccination.
· Increase support for local delivery mechanisms and capacity to deliver vac= cines quickly and fairly and to strengthen national and local health systems for preparedness and response.
· Ensure that vaccines get from suppliers to those most at risk including refugees, migrants, asylum seekers, marginalised groups, stateless persons, and those in areas affected by armed conflict.
·
Wai=
ve the
indemnity and liability requirements for humanitarian buffer applicants.
Non-=
Discrimination
and Inclusion
Universal non-discrimination, inclusion, and equality of treatment are essential for effective pandemic response, mitigation, and recovery.
· Ensure that non-discrimin= ation, equality of treatment and inclusion are core legal, regulatory, and institu= tional parameters for all public and private health and social protection measures= for all persons present, including migrants, refugees, asylum-seekers, stateless persons, and internally displaced persons.
·
Bui=
ld on,
adapt, and utilize existing legislative frameworks on anti-discrimination,
explicitly incorporating nationality as well as national origin, ethnicity,
race, and religion among prohibited grounds.
·
Ens=
ure that
migration status is excluded as grounds for exclusion or limitations on
provision of health services, vaccination, social protection and social and
human services access and delivery.
·
Take
measures to prevent, monitor and address racism, xenophobia, discrimination,
hatred, and violence including holding perpetrators to account.
·
Eng=
age local
and national anti-discrimination and human rights monitoring bodies in
monitoring compliance with non-discrimination law and regulations, reviewing
government and other actor policy and actions, taking up complaints,
documenting evidence, and otherwise supporting migrants, refugees, mobile
workers and other non-nationals, stateless persons and IDPs, vis a vis
discrimination and xenophobia.
·
Inc=
lude
participation of migrants and refugees, as well as worker unions and civil
society actors, in developing, implementing, and monitoring anti-discrimina=
tion
and inclusion strategy, policy and actions.
·
Ini=
tiate
and support campaigns combating xenophobia and racism and ensure that public
discourse and responses to COVID-19 do not contribute to those.
Comm=
unity support
and protection measures
Providin= g for effective coronavirus prevention, protection and treatment measures is vita= l at the local, community level. Key is taking account of conditions of localiti= es and housing where migrants and asylum seekers reside; situations of refugee= and IDP camps; and circumstances where adult populations depend on day-to-day w= ork outside home –when they can get it– to survive, where social distancing is impossible, and stay-at-home lockdowns unsurvivable. Response measures include:
· Determine and apply viabl= e, appropriate measures for access to sustenance and/or remunerative activity = in situations where social distancing and isolation are effectively impossible, such as crowded housing, slum neighbourhoods, m= igrant worker dormitories, refugee camps.
· Implement safe-work measures in crowded workplaces (e.g., meat packing plants, garment mills), that may be hotspots of transmission.
· Allow for free movement w= ith masks, social distancing guidelines and PPE where people and economies depe= nd on day-work for sustenance, especially where basic needs support is not feasible or deliverable due to absence of resources, lack of infrastructure, weak or ineffective government institutions, etc.
· Implement/continue measur= es of income-loss compensation and/or minimum income/resources to sustain essenti= al food and housing for migrants, refugees, and other displaced people in plac= e.
· Establish and implement <= span style=3D'color:black'>adequate measures to respond to heightened risks of violence, including gender-based violence, due to the pandemic.
·
Sup=
port the
engagement of migrants, refugees, and displaced people in COVID-19 response=
s,
particularly professionals, healthcare trained professionals and community
leaders.
Immi=
gration,
movement across borders and non-refoulement
Cross bo= rder movement of workers remains vital to sustaining food supply, health care, agricultural and industrial production, construction, transportation, and economies in general in many countries worldwide, particularly in regional economic communities and common markets. Providing or maintaining recogniti= on and status to all migrants and refugees present in a country is paramount to ensure that appropriate coronavirus information, prevention, testing, vaccination, and treatment reach all persons equitably in every community a= nd place. Imperative measures include:
· Eliminate border barriers impeding movement to work of seasonal, frontier, temporary, posted, transportation and other workers needed/employed in national economies and/= or across borders, particularly in regional free movement regimes.
· Facilitate adjustment of status, temporary extension and/or renewal of permits, and group determination/actions (such as extension of permits for classes of migrants rather than individual procedures) permitting migrants to remain in authori= zed status.
· Conduct regularisation of status for migrants to ensure legal recognition, access to vital service= s, and employment in regular situations with protection of rights and decent w= ork.
· Ensure that access across= borders to seek refugee protection by asylum seekers and refugees is not impeded in= the guise of coronavirus restrictions or for other reasons.
· Maintain explicit legal protection for migrants and refugees’ rights and dignity during measures of mandatory confinement as well as travel/movement restrictions.
· Maintain unfettered acces= s to asylum/refugee claimant and determination procedures.
· Designate birth and death registration services as ‘essential services’ and continue to operate, with temporary operational modifications as necessary and appropriate.
· Allow online notification= and registration of vital events, extend timelines for registration of birth, a= nd put in place a fee waiver for late birth registration.
· Enact reforms to uphold citizens’ right to confer nationality on spouses and children and to acquir= e, change, and retain nationality on an equal basis regardless of gender.
· Suspend all detention of migrants/asylum seekers, non-nationals except for criminal violations.
· Ensure that any returns a= re carried out on a voluntary basis, meeting requirements of a fully informed decision, without coercion and supported by availability of valid alternati= ves.
· Ensure that all returns c= omply with non-refoulement and the prohibition of collective expulsions, as well as guarantees of due process, access to lawyers and translators, and the right to appeal, and that any returns are compatible with sustaining public health in the country of retu= rn.
Empl=
oyment,
migrant worker protection, inclusion of migrant/refugee entrepreneurs
Dismissa= ls and layoffs of workers –particularly migrants, closures of businesses, border closures, and departure and deportations in reaction to the pandemic reduced capacity and competence of entire workforces as well as specific sectors in local and national economies. These, and ongoing restrictions on mobility a= nd migration have contributed to ongoing shortages of goods and services, nota= bly in food supply and essential health care and to aggravated deficits of work= ers in demand as of 2021. Immediate measures are imperative to:
· Uphold strict conditional= ities of/for layoffs and for departure from the country of employment, including adequate notice period, payment of all wages/salary owed, and transfer of earned social security contributions and entitlements.
· Ensure that employers comply with all national and local requiremen= ts for public health and occupational safety and health and communicate critical information to employees, particularly (im)migr= ant and refugee workers.
· Assess where presence and availability of international workers= (in complementarity with native workers) are required to maintain and/or rebuild production and distribution activity and to provide for needed skills, productivity, and innovation across workforces.
· Include migrant, refugee and other displaced entrepreneurs in economic incentives and in credit provided to small and medium enterprises (SMEs).
· Facilitate recognition of qualifications, notably for refugee and migrant workers in health and other essential occupations and sectors.
· Take measures to retain employment and available foreign workers and skills.
· Formulate guidelines and provide incentives for reanimating local and national economies during and after periods of continued special measures (such as lockdowns), with atten= tion to facilitating access by needed foreign skills and la= bour.
Soci=
al
protection and education
Social p= rotection and access to schooling have been devastated worldwide by the COVID-19 pand= emic and measures taken to impede its propagation; migrants and refugees are amo= ng those most devastatingly affected. Urgent measures to ensure provision of social protection and schooling for migrants and refugees and others simila= rly affected include:
·
Gua=
rantee
access to social services, including mental and psychosocial support for al=
l,
particularly children and adolescents and unaccompanied and separated minor=
s.
· Ensure provision of basic health care and attention to all children, including migrant and displaced children, and children remaining 'at home' with parents abroad.
· Provide for social protec= tion safety net coverage of all migrants and displaced people.
· Establish/maintain special basic needs support measures to families cut off from overseas migrant breadwinner/s support.
· Extend financial support packages to all those residents in the territory who meet needs, risk, or vulnerability criteria, regardless of legal status.
· Ensure access by all migr= ant, refugee, asylum seeker, stateless and displaced children to virtual learning if/when classroom learning is restricted due to coronavirus measures, inclu= ding by providing devices or alternatives to those who do not have reliable telecommunications connectivity or personal computer or cell-phone hardware= .
·
Pro=
vide for
continued access to emergency shelters for migrants in transit, homeless
people, and victims of disasters with no barriers as to their migratory sta=
tus.
·
Ext=
end
rent/housing payment moratoriums and/or payment support aid for COVID-relat=
ed
impediments and suspend evictions from homes and shelters.
Refu=
gees,
stateless persons, IDPs and asylum seekers’ specific measures
Upholdin= g refugee protection is crucial under any circumstances, as is maintaining the mechan= isms of access to protection and of adequate assistance. Precautions for prevent= ing spread of COVID can easily be maintained or applied without impeding access= to protection, to legal recognition and to decent living situations for refuge= es, asylum-seekers, stateless persons and IDPs:
· Maintain access to refugee protection, including by ensuring access to asy= lum, individual assessment, best interest assessment and determination, and international protection under international human rights and refugee law.
· Ada= pt registration and processing of new asylum applications by mail, phone, emai= l, and other virtual communication tools, as well as by ma= king adjustments to facilities in accordance with public health guidelines, so those seeking protection are still able to do so.
· Automatically extend asyl= um documents and civil registration deadlines, while services are suspended and for a reasonable period after registration services have restarted to allow persons to renew their documents before they become invalid.
· Facilitate nationality procedures and change discriminatory nationality laws and practices, particularly those tolerating gender discrimination.
· Reinstate/Allow rescue at= sea operations in the Mediterranean region, South Asia and elsewhere.
· Provide full access by refugees, IDPs, stateless persons to healthcare, including coronavirus treatment, testing, prevention, and vaccination, similarly to local populations.
· Ensure adequate health facilities as well as food, water, sanitation, and hygiene for all displaced people, those in camp situations and holding facilities.
· Provide for adequate spac= e and reduce/prevent overcrowding at refugee and IDP camps and processing centers= , by expanding facilities and/or transferring refugees from overcrowded faciliti= es to decent housing, respecting the family unit.
· Include forcibly displaced people in national response plans and programmes, as well as in social safety nets and in-kind support responding to the socio-economic impact of the pandemics.
· Advocate for/ensure appropriations of additional allocations to UNHCR and the WFP to enable dec= ent housing/shelter and adequate nutrition for all at refugee and IDP camps/facilities.
·
Re-=
establish
resettlement, complementary pathways, and regional and national relocation
operations and programmes.
Gend=
er specific
considerations
The impa= ct of COVID-19, and especially of often ill-considered response measures, has been and remains highly gendered for migrant and refugee women and girls. A comprehensive set of measures is needed to:
· Ensure that all COVID pre= vention and mitigation efforts and education are gender responsive and gender appropriate.
· Directly address specific= risks for women migrants and refugees, including those in healthcare, aged care, = and other essential work.
· Encourage prevention meas= ures and provide PPE to reach women at workplaces and at home.
· Ensure focused and target= ed outreach to provide health information, including specifically about COVID,= to migrant, asylum seeker, IDP, stateless and refugee women and girls includin= g in isolated 'hard to reach' situations.
· Ensure that all pregnant = women and mothers of infants enjoy adequate and appropriate pre-natal, birthing, = and post-natal attention, including equipping care providers and maternity facilities with PPE material for all women receiving care.
· Maintain or provide (if non-existent) reproductive health, family planning and contraceptive information, services and products for all refugee and migrant women and adolescent girls.
· Recognize, suppress, and provide safety options and shelters for victims of increased domestic viole= nce against women and children during the pandemic, particularly during lockdow= ns.
· Provide access to menstru= al hygiene products, particularly to women and girls in camp situations.
· Support prevention and re= sponse initiatives targeting men and boys, highlighting positive male role models,= and promoting non-violent behaviour.
· Support helplines, safe-h= ouses, support groups and other mechanisms of solidarity for migrant/refugee women= .
Data,
Narrative and Communications
Obtainin= g and providing accurate, reliable information and knowledge reaching all populat= ions and individuals is primordial to overcoming the pandemic and the detrimental effects it and many response measures have had. Communication of accurate information and narratives of respect and solidarity is indeed key to rolli= ng back discrimination, exclusion, and racist-xenophobic violence.
· Collect, analyze, and app= ly gender-, age-, and migration-situation disaggregated data locally and nationally on needs for, access to and availabi= lity of health care; decent work/employment; basic income; social protection; schooling and education; and freedom of movement as well as COVID-specific information.
· Articulate and popularize= a narrative of solidarity, respect and common interest regarding migrants, immigrants, refugees, IDPs, stateless persons and asylum seekers.
· Emphasize that migrants, refugees, and other displaced people are part of our communities and make essential contributions to economic and social well-being for all.
· Clarify that migration and refugee protection are not major risk factors for transmission; rather trav= el per se –for business, tourism, or holidays– is a concern, specifying that most transmission was, remains and = will be domestic «community» exposure everywhere.
· Provide communications and dedicated outreach efforts in locations, languages, and channels of communication of populations present, including immigrant, migrant, refugee, stateless and displaced persons.
· Monitor and correct misinformation, including by engaging trusted community members and leaders= to promote circulation of accurate knowledge and to contest misinformation.
Reco=
very,
Building Forward Together
While the end of the pandemic and g= eneral social, employment and mobility recovery remains less than imminent, it is timely to prepare for rebuilding fo= rward together. Main challenges include employment reduction and stagnation remaining unabated in major economic sectors in many countries; business failures rising particularly among SMEs; controls on cross-border mobility remaining in place or being reimposed; and socio-economic situations for la= rge numbers of people worsening as relief funds are not extended, moratoriums on rent and mortgage payments expire, and crises in governments remain unresol= ved. Sustainable recovery and rebuilding of economies and societies will necessa= rily include:
· Strengthening universal quality services and social protection made available to, accessible by, and with, equality of treatment for all migrants and refugees. Implementation of the Universal So= cial Floor in all countries is key. Explicit inclusion of all migrants, refugees, stateless persons, and displaced persons in COVID prevention, testing, PPE, vaccination, and treatment as needed.
· Establishing UBI –universal basic income with coverage of all resident migrants and refugees, regardless of status, as the only way to leave no-one behind, particularly in contexts of aggravated unemployment and accelerated business failures.
· Articulating employment rich recovery plans with employment support measures, both immediate and for sustainable recovery, ensuring equal access to employment for migrant workers and support for mig= rant and refugee entrepreneurs.
· Strengthening decent work, workers’ rights and labour standards regulation, implementation, monitoring and enforcement, with explicit inclusion of equality of treatment/non-discrimination in law, application of international labour standards, and labour inspection covering all migrant workers.
· Regularising status of migrants in irregular situations recognizing that most migrants enter destination countries by regular means although some overstay permits and/or take up employment with= out authorisation, while many migrants worldwide are in free-movement spaces with rights to mobility, residence, and establishment.=
Conclusions
Migrants, mob=
ile
workers, refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and internally displa=
ced
persons (IDPs) remain among the most severely impacted, most at risk, and l=
east
protected peoples in the ongoing pandemic. Ill-considered response measures
excluding or ignoring migrants and refugees –or targeting them as scapegoat=
s-
have significantly worsened health, social, economic, and political impacts=
of
the pandemic crisis. While some improvements in health and pandemic-response
policy and practice have been implemented, the pandemic appears set to
continue. Without deliberate and comprehensive attention to the situations =
of
migrants and refugees and their inclusion in overall response, prevention a=
nd
recovery measures, the pandemic itself and its nefarious impacts on populat=
ions
and communities worldwide will not be overcome.
There are no =
simple
solutions, quick fixes, or easy remedies; a comprehensive package of measur=
es
is imperative. While some can be accomplished by administrative action, all
need public oversight and legislative enabling, including by ensuring that
resources are in place to include migrants, refugees, asylum seekers, state=
less
persons and IDPs in national and local COVID-19 responses and recovery.
Acknowledgmen=
ts
The authors w=
ish to
express their gratitude to Kareen Jabre at IPU
(Inter-Parliamentary Union) and Ana Carolina Pinto Dan=
tas
and Safak Pavey at UNHCR (the UN High Commissio=
ner
for Refugees) office who provided editorial review and contributions to an
earlier draft, and to Nayeth Solorzano at ESPOL=
for
her co-authorship of the previous edition in Spanish of this research. Init=
ial
support for research for this brief was provided by IPU.
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[1] See the listing and full texts at =
https://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CoreInstruments.a=
spx
[2] ILO. Conventions and Recommendations. https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/introduction-to-international-la= bour-standards/conventions-and-recommendations/lang--en/index.htm
[3] See full texts at https://www.unhc=
r.org/3b66c2aa10 ; background information and lists=
of
States parties at https://www.unhcr.org/1951-refugee-convention.html<=
span
lang=3DEN-US style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>
[6] Text and
ratification status at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CMW.aspx
5
COVID-19, Migrants, Refugees, Mobile Workers: Glo=
bal
Assessment and Action Agenda