https://doi.org/10.37815/rte.v37n1.1293

Original articles

Migrant Associations: Enhancing Migrant Agency
and Advancing Social Justice

Asociaciones de migrantes:
Fortaleciendo la capacidad de acción de los migrantes y promoviendo la Justicia
Social

Victoria
Castillo Rueda1 https://orcid.org/0009-0005-9405-7706

1Global Migration Policy Associates (GMPA), Geneva, Switzerland

[email-masked]

Sent:       2025/03/18

Accepted:       2025/06/09

Published:       2025/06/30

Abstract

Migrant associations
play a crucial role in enhancing migrant agency and advancing social justice by
fostering social, economic, and political empowerment. This article develops a
conceptual framework that integrates theories of migrant agency, social justice
and migration, examining how migrants navigate structural constraints while
actively shaping their own mobility and integration experiences. Drawing on
existing literature and the author’s Doctoral dissertation, it also presents a
state-of-the-art review of migrant associations, highlighting their functions,
challenges, and impact. The study explores the multifaceted role of migrant
associations in empowering migrants across different domains. Social and
cultural empowerment is achieved through the preservation of cultural identity,
language programs, and social integration initiatives. Economic empowerment and
labor rights advocacy focus on skill development, employment support, and
advocacy for fair wages and working conditions. Legal and political empowerment
is facilitated through legal aid, advocacy for migrant rights, and political
mobilization to influence policies affecting migrant communities. Migrant
associations further contribute to social capital and community building by
strengthening networks, fostering solidarity, and bridging ties between migrant
groups and host societies. Additionally, these organizations play a vital role
in crisis response, providing emergency relief. The findings underscore the
importance of legal recognition of human and labour rights, as well as policy
frameworks that support and collaborate with migrant-led organizations to
ensure inclusive and just societies. Ultimately, this article argues that
migrant associations are not only essential for migrant agency but also key
actors in the broader struggle for social justice

Summary: Introduction, Methodology, Conceptual Framework, Migrant Association: Enhancing
Migrant Agency and Advancing Social Justice, Conclusions.

How to cite: Castillo Rueda,
V. (2025). Migrant Associations: Enhancing Migrant Agency and Advancing
Social Justice Order. Revista Tecnológica - Espol, 37(1), 134-155.

https://rte.espol.edu.ec/index.php/tecnologica/article/view/1293

.

Keywords: Migrant
Empowerment, Rights, Social Capital, Advocacy, Community Building.

Resumen

Las asociaciones de migrantes
desempeñan un papel crucial en el fortalecimiento de la agencia migrante y la
promoción de la justicia social, fomentando el empoderamiento en los ámbitos
social, económico y político. Este artículo propone un marco conceptual que
integra teorías sobre agencia migrante y justicia social, explorando cómo los
migrantes enfrentan restricciones estructurales mientras construyen activamente
sus trayectorias de movilidad e integración. A partir de la literatura y de la
tesis doctoral del autor, se revisa el estado del arte sobre asociaciones de
migrantes, analizando sus funciones, desafíos e impactos. Estas asociaciones
impulsan el empoderamiento social y cultural mediante la preservación de la
identidad, programas lingüísticos e iniciativas de integración. En lo
económico, promueven la capacitación, el acceso al empleo y la defensa de
condiciones laborales justas. Desde lo político y legal, ofrecen apoyo
jurídico, defienden derechos y movilizan a las comunidades migrantes para
influir en políticas públicas. Además, fortalecen el capital social al tejer
redes, fomentar la solidaridad y construir puentes con las sociedades de
acogida. Su rol es igualmente fundamental en contextos de crisis, brindando
ayuda humanitaria y apoyo de emergencia. El estudio subraya la importancia de
marcos normativos que reconozcan los derechos humanos y laborales de las
personas migrantes, y que respalden legal y políticamente a sus organizaciones.
En última instancia, se argumenta que las asociaciones de migrantes son actores
clave no solo en la construcción de su propia agencia, sino también en la lucha
colectiva por sociedades más justas e inclusivas.

Palabras
clave: Empoderamiento migrante, derechos, capital social,
incidencia política, construcción de comunidad.

Introduction

Migration
is a defining phenomenon of the contemporary world, shaping societies
economically, politically, and culturally. Migrants face significant structural
challenges – not only during their journey, but also in their daily lives
within countries of residence, including legal barriers, labor exploitation,
social exclusion, and limited access to essential services. However, migration
is not solely defined by constraints; migrants also actively shape their own
experiences and outcomes, demonstrating agency in navigating complex
socio-political environments. This article examines the critical role of
migrant associations in enhancing migrant agency and advancing social justice,
providing a comprehensive analysis of how these organizations empower migrants
across various domains.

To ground
this discussion, the article develops a conceptual framework integrating
theories of migrant agency, social justice, and migration studies. Migrant
agency refers to the capacity of migrants to act independently and make choices
despite the constraints imposed by legal, economic, and social structures
(Glick Schiller & Çağlar, 2011; de Haas, 2014). Social justice, as
articulated by Rawls (1971), Fraser (1995) and Sen (2009), involves the full
respect for and realization of human rights, including rights at work,
resources, and opportunities, ensuring that all individuals regardless of their
migration status can participate fully in society. Migrant associations, which
are grassroots or formal organizations established by and for migrants, serve
as vital spaces where migrant agency is expressed and where social justice is
pursued (Cordero-Guzmán, 2005; Portes et al., 2007). The state of research on
migrant associations highlights their diverse functions, from service provision
and advocacy to political mobilization and cultural preservation (Fennema,
2004; Lacroix, 2010).

This
article explores how migrant associations enhance migrant agency and advance
social justice through various mechanisms. Firstly, social and cultural
empowerment is facilitated through initiatives such as language programs,
cultural events, and identity preservation, which help newly arrived and
longtime resident migrants navigate the local environments while maintaining
ties to their heritage. Secondly, economic empowerment and labor rights
advocacy play a crucial role in securing fair employment conditions, promoting
entrepreneurship, and combating workplace exploitation. Thirdly, legal and political empowerment is achieved
through legal aid, awareness campaigns, and political mobilization efforts that
advocate for migrants' rights and policy reforms. Additionally, migrant
associations contribute to social capital and community building by fostering
networks that provide emotional and material support while also strengthening
ties between migrant communities and host societies. Lastly, these organizations
are instrumental in humanitarian support and crisis response, offering
emergency aid, housing assistance, and essential services to migrants in
vulnerable situations.

By
analyzing the functions and impact of migrant associations, this article argues
that these organizations are not only essential for the integration and
well-being of migrant communities, but also serve as key actors in broader
struggles for social justice. Recognizing and supporting their work is crucial
in developing more inclusive and equitable societies. Through a review of
existing literature and empirical case studies, this study highlights the
transformative potential of migrant associations as vehicles of empowerment,
solidarity, and systemic change.

Methodology

This study
builds upon the author’s doctoral research on Andean migrant associations'
engagement in both host and home countries, specifically focusing on the experiences
of Bolivian, Colombian, Ecuadorian, and Peruvian migrant organizations in the
Cantons of Geneva and Vaud, Switzerland.

Additional
research focuses on migrant agency and social justice and migration. This
article integrates primary and secondary data collection methods to examine how
migrant associations enhance migrant agency and contribute to social justice.

PhD
dissertation

Primary
Data Collection

For the PhD
dissertation, primary data was collected through a mixed-methods approach,
including:

•
Semi-structured
interviews with twelve presidents of the 12 Andean migrant associations active
in the Cantons of Geneva and Vaud in Switzerland, to gain insights into their
organizational strategies, challenges, and their role in host and home countries.

•
A
survey distributed among members of migrant associations to gather
quantitative data on
their activities, perceptions, and the effectiveness of their initiatives.

•
Participant
observation, allowing for a deeper understanding of the associations’ internal
dynamics, decision-making processes, and interactions with migrant communities.

Secondary
Data Collection

To
contextualize and complement the primary data, a desk review of relevant
literature and policy documents was conducted. This included:

•
Academic
publications on transnationalism and migrant associations.

•
Reports
from international organizations and NGOs addressing migrant associations’
roles in advocacy, integration, and rights protection.

•
Policy
documents from Swiss authorities and international bodies to examine the
institutional environment in which these associations operate.

Research on
migrant agency and social justice

Building on
the doctoral research, additional secondary data analysis was undertaken to
establish the role of migrant associations in enhancing migrant agency and
advancing social justice. This involved a review of literature on migrant
agency theories, social justice frameworks, and migration, allowing for a broader
theoretical grounding. To illustrate the role of migrant associations in
enhancing migrant agency and advancing social justice, the author draws on
examples of Latin American migrant associations in Europe, the United States,
and Latin America, complementing the findings of her doctoral research.

By
combining qualitative and quantitative methods, this article provides a
comprehensive understanding of how migrant associations function as key actors
in social justice movements and migrant empowerment.

Conceptual Framework

Migrant Agency

Migrant agency refers to the capacity of
migrants to act independently, make choices, and exert influence over their own
migration experiences despite structural constraints such as legal
restrictions, economic barriers, and social exclusion (Glick Schiller &
Çaglar, 2009). In migration studies, agency is often discussed in relation to
migrants' ability to navigate migration policies, labor markets, social
networks, and integration processes (Bakewell, 2010).

Scholars distinguish between individual agency
and collective agency. Individual agency refers to the strategies that migrants
personally adopt to navigate and overcome obstacles, such as securing informal
employment, adapting to legal systems, or cultural differences (Mahler &
Pessar, 2006). Collective agency, on the other hand, emerges through social
movements, migrant organizations, and transnational networks that advocate for
migrants’ rights and social inclusion (Faist, 2000).

Scholars such as Emirbayer & Mische (1998)
highlight agency as a temporally embedded process involving past experiences,
present engagement, and future-oriented aspirations. In the context of
migration, De Haas (2010) argues that agency operates within structural
opportunities and constraints, with migrants actively shaping their migration
trajectories, settlement processes, and transnational networks.

Structural Constraints

Despite their agency, migrants operate within
powerful structural constraints, including restrictive immigration laws, labor
exploitation, and social discrimination (De Haas, 2010). Some scholars argue
that agency is constrained by state policies that categorize migrants into
hierarchical legal statuses, limiting their ability to access rights and
services (Anderson, 2010).

For instance, the concept of “bounded agency”
(Evans, 2007) suggests that migrants' decisions are not entirely free but are shaped by legal frameworks, economic inequalities, and social
hierarchies. Migrants with precarious legal status, such as undocumented
workers or asylum seekers, may exercise agency in limited ways, such as
engaging in informal labor markets or creating mutual aid networks (Bloch,
Sigona & Zetter, 2014). However, migrants also demonstrate strategic agency
by using legal loopholes, engaging in advocacy, and mobilizing networks to
challenge exclusion (Schapendonk, 2018).

The Role of Social Capital and Networks

Social networks and social capital play a
crucial role in enabling migrant agency by providing access to jobs, legal
support, and community resources (Portes, 1998). Migrants rely on both bonding
social capital (ties within their ethnic communities) and bridging social
capital (connections with broader society) to improve their socio-economic
conditions (Putnam, 2000). Cederberg (2012) highlights how migrant networks can
facilitate economic mobility and political participation, particularly for
marginalized groups. However, excessive reliance on bonding capital within
ethnic enclaves can also limit opportunities for integration into the broader
society (Vermeulen, 2006).

Furthermore, transnational networks allow
migrants to sustain ties with their countries of origin while negotiating new
identities in host societies (Levitt & Glick Schiller, 2004). Hometown
associations and diaspora organizations exemplify how migrant agency extends
beyond national borders, influencing development in both countries of origin
and residence (Orozco & Rouse, 2007).

Migrant Agency in the Context of Social Justice
and Advocacy

Migrants exercise agency not only in individual
survival strategies but also in collective struggles for social justice.
Migrant-led organizations play a critical role in mobilizing communities,
advocating for legal rights, and fighting discrimination (Morales & Giugni,
2011).

The role of digital agency is also gaining
attention, as migrants use social media platforms to organize protests, share
information, and access resources (Leurs & Prabhakar, 2018). This new
dimension of migrant agency enables even those in precarious situations to
engage in advocacy and resistance.

Somerville et al. (2008) argue that migrant
associations contribute to political empowerment by increasing migrant
participation in governance. In Switzerland, for instance, migrant-led
organizations have influenced policies related to asylum-seeker protections and
anti-discrimination laws (Bolzman &
Fibbi, 1991). Migrant agency is exercised in multiple ways, including economic
participation, political activism, and community engagement. Migrant
associations are key platforms through which collective agency is mobilized,
enabling migrants to advocate for rights, access resources, and participate in
social and political life in both origin and host countries.

Social Justice and Migration

Definition of Social Justice

Social justice refers to the respect for,
protection of and realization of all human rights for all persons in society.
It seeks to eliminate systemic inequalities and discrimination related to race,
gender, class, nationality, and other social categories, ensuring that all
individuals have access to the same opportunities and protections. Several
scholars define social justice in different ways:

•       John Rawls' (1971) theory of justice aims to reconcile the tension between individual liberty and
social equality, advocating for a system that prioritizes fairness and
emphasizing equal access to basic liberties, opportunities, and resources for
all members of society, particularly those who are least advantaged in society.

•       Nancy Fraser (1995) argues that
social justice involves both redistribution (economic fairness) and recognition
(cultural and identity-based equality).

•       Amartya Sen’s (1999) capabilities framework
highlights the importance of individual freedoms and capabilities in achieving
justice.

Social Justice Principles

Various scholars and organizations have
contributed to defining the principles of social justice. Below are the key
principles:

•       Human Rights and Dignity: Social
justice is fundamentally tied to the respect for, protection, promotion and
realisation of all human rights, ensuring that all persons in society are
treated with dignity (UN DESA, 2006). This includes the right to work, freedom
of movement, and protection from discrimination.

•       Equity: It refers to the fair
distribution of resources and opportunities, taking into account historical and
structural disadvantages that different groups face (Rawls, 1971). Unlike
equality, which provides the same treatment for all, equity acknowledges that
individuals have diverse needs and circumstances that
require targeted interventions (Fraser, 1997).

•       Access: It ensures that all
individuals, regardless of their socio-economic background, migration status,
or ethnicity, have the ability to utilize essential services, including
education, healthcare, housing, and employment (Sen, 2009). Restricted access
to these services creates systemic inequalities that hinder social justice.

•       Participation: Social justice
requires active and meaningful participation of all individuals in political,
economic, and social life (Young, 1990). Migrants, for example, should have a
voice in policymaking processes that affect their lives and be included in
decision-making structures.

•       Diversity and Recognition:
Recognizing and valuing diversity ensures that the cultural, linguistic, and
social identities of marginalized groups are acknowledged and respected
(Taylor, 1992). Fraser (1997) distinguishes between redistribution and recognition,
arguing that social justice must address both economic inequalities and
cultural misrecognition.

•       Redistribution of Resources:
Economic justice is a core component of social justice, emphasizing the need to
redistribute wealth, opportunities, and power to ensure a fairer society
(Harvey, 1973; Piketty, 2014). This principle is particularly relevant in
migration contexts, where migrant workers often face economic exploitation and
below- living- wage disparities.

•       Accountability and Fair Governance:
Social justice requires mechanisms of accountability to ensure that
governments, institutions, and corporations uphold human rights, international
labour standards and fair policies and practices (Stiglitz, 2012). Transparent
governance structures that involve marginalized communities in decision-making
help in fostering just societies.

Migration and Social Justice: A Rights-Based
Approach

Migration has been a defining aspect of human history,
shaping societies, economies, and cultures worldwide (UN DESA, 2022). While
migration offers opportunities for individuals and communities, it also
presents significant challenges, particularly in ensuring that migrants' rights
and dignity are protected. A social justice approach to migration emphasizes
the need for policies that promote equity, inclusion, and human rights,
regardless of a migrant’s legal status (UNHCR, 2023).

Migrants often face systemic barriers that
limit their access to employment, healthcare, education, and legal protection.
These challenges are exacerbated by intersecting factors such as gender, race,
ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (IOM, 2022). Refugees, asylum seekers, and
undocumented migrants are particularly at risk of exploitation, discrimination,
and exclusion from social and legal protections (MPI, 2022).

According to the International Labour
Organization (ILO, 2021), migrant workers frequently experience labor market
segmentation, where they are concentrated in low-wage, insecure, or informal
employment sectors. Many also lack access to social security benefits, making
them vulnerable to economic shocks. In addition, migrants face significant
healthcare disparities, with many unable to access adequate medical services
due to their legal status or financial barriers (WHO, 2022).

The Role of Social Justice in Migration Policy

A social justice framework seeks to address
these inequalities by advocating for policies that uphold human dignity and
rights. Right-based migration policies should:

•       Ensure Legal Protections and Respect for Human Rights: Migrants, regardless of their status, asylum seekers and refugees
must have access to legal pathways for residency and protection from
exploitation. Asylum seekers must have access to fair asylum procedures (UNHCR,
2023).

•       Promote Economic Justice: Migrant
workers deserve fair wages, safe working conditions, and equal access to labor
and social protections (ILO, 2019).

•       Guarantee Access to Essential
Services: Healthcare, education, and housing should be accessible to migrants,
regardless of immigration status (WHO, 2022).

•       Combat Xenophobia and
Discrimination: Anti-migrant narratives contribute to exclusion and violence.
Governments and civil society must work to foster inclusive and rights-based
policies (MPI, 2022).

Gender, Migration, and Social Justice

Gender plays a critical role in shaping
migration experiences. Women and marginalized gender groups face additional
risks, including gender-based violence, labor exploitation, and limited access
to reproductive healthcare (UN Women, 2019). The International Organization for
Migration (IOM, 2023) highlights that women migrant workers, especially
domestic workers, often face abusive working conditions and lack legal
protections, making them more vulnerable to exploitation.

A gender-responsive approach to migration
policy is essential. The ILO Convention No. 189 on Decent Work for Domestic
Workers (ILO, 2019) sets international labor standards to protect migrant
domestic workers, emphasizing fair wages and safe working conditions.
Similarly, the Global Migration Data Analysis Centre (GMDAC, 2023) stresses the
need for gender-sensitive migration policies that address the unique challenges
faced by migrant women, including access to healthcare, child protection, and
legal assistance.

Global
Responsibility and Human Rights

Migration governance must align with
international normative human rights frameworks, in particular the three
international ‘migration governance’ conventions: the International Convention
on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrants Workers and Members of Their
Families (ICRMW), and ILO Convention 97 on migration for employment and ILO Convention 143 on migrant workers. The ILO international labor
standards apply to all migrant workers and should be incorporated in national
law to uphold decent work for all workers.

Governments, international organizations, and
civil society must collaborate to uphold the adoption and domestication of
international conventions on the rights of all migrants/migrant workers. In
this regard, migrant associations have a role to play as advocates for
rights-based policies, holding governments accountable and ensuring that
migrants' voices are heard in policy dialogues. Through representation and
empowerment, they help migrants understand and claim their rights, fostering
active civic participation. Furthermore, by building solidarity across
transnational networks and forging alliances with labor unions and civil
society, they strengthen collective action toward better migration governance
and social justice.

The Population Division of the United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA, 2025) reports that in 2024, the global number of international migrants was 304 million and female
migrants constituted 48 per cent of this population. Addressing migration through a rights-based approach requires long-term commitments to humanitarian
protection, economic integration, and anti-discrimination measures.

A socially just migration framework
acknowledges migrants' dignity and contributions while addressing systemic
inequalities. It requires inclusive policies, international cooperation, and a
shift away from restrictive and punitive migration laws toward rights-based,
humane solutions. Migration should be recognized as a driver of development and
social progress, benefiting both migrants and the communities that host them
(World Bank, 2022).

State of the Art on Migrant Associations[1]

The study of migrant organizations, including
associations, is complex due to the multiple elements involved and the absence
of an agreed-upon definition of this phenomenon. Some
scholars focus on the definition and the role of  a migrant association (Fennema, 2004; Moya 2005; Schrover and Vermeulen, 2005; Cordero,
2005), others focus on the migrant organizing process (Cordero, 2005; Lacroix,
2010; Vermeulen, 2006), and yet others combine the phenomenon with the study of
social capital and networks (Cederberg, 2012; Eggert & Pilati, 2014;
Fennema, 2004;) or with the political opportunity structure (Bolzman &
Fibbi, 1991; Danase, 2001; Fennema & Tillie 1999; Jacob & Tillie 2004,
Hooghe, 2005, Morales & Giugni, 2011; Tackle, 2013). Other scholars concentrate on the complementary nature of migrant organizations’ activities in
both origin and destination countries (Portes et al., 2007), their active role on integration (Portes et al., 2007; Somerville et al., 2008) or on development (Fox
& Bada, 2009, Lacroix 2010, Lacroix, 2016; Orozco & Garcia, 2009,
Orozco & Rouse, 2007).

Another complexity is the diverse terms used to
describe migrant organizations, such as ethnic organization (Fennema, 2004;
Hoogue, 2005), migrant community base organization (Cordero-Guzman, 2005),
hometown association (commonly used in the US, e.g. Lacroix 2010; Orozco & Garcia,
2009; Orozco & Rouse, 2007; Somerville et
al., 2008), and migrant association, indistinctly of organization type[2] (Camozzi, 2011; Caponio, 2005; Cattacin & La Barba, 2007; Moya,
2005; Vermeulen, 2006).

Defining migrant associations

It is important to recognize that migrant
associations are one form of migrant organizations, which can take many forms,
and often coexist in a given society (Breton, 1964; Moya, 2005; Sardinha, 2009; Vermeulen, 2006). Examples include credit and
business associations, mutual benefit societies, religious, sport, educational,
dance, gastronomy and recreational groups, hometown and women’s associations, student organizations, solidarity and political and
advocacy groups.  There are also migrant
organizations established by migrants and those established for migrants
(Vermeulen, 2006). This study focuses on migrant associations, defined by
Fennema (2004) as those migrant organizations with affiliates or members.

Schrover and Vermeulen (2005), as well as Moya
(2005), question the extent to which an organization can be labelled as a migrant association. Is it because its members are migrants, or because
most of them are descendants of migrants? Does it refer to associations
established by first-generation migrants with mixed membership, or those
founded by natives but with mostly migrant membership? Such a line of
questioning leads to the fundamental question of when a migrant association
should no longer be classified as a “migrant” association, but rather convert
to an organization of some other label, such as an ethnic association. Does it
depend on whether they are founded or managed by second or third
generation-migrants? These are complex considerations, and, as reflected in the previous section, there is no consensus on a
precise definition by scholars working in this area.

Given the characteristics of the target group
and focus of this study, migrant
associations are defined as membership organizations formed by individuals from
the same country of origin with the aim to provide social services mostly to
migrants from the same or similar migrant group (Cordero-Guzman, 2005,
Somerville et al., 2008). They
explicitly integrate ethnic or national origin identity
and cultural components into their mission, activities, and services (Cordero-Guzman, 2005).

Factors stimulating the formation of migrant
associations

Factors related to the migrant group, as well as the host society, influence and
stimulate the formation of migrant associations (Cordero-Guzman, 2005,
Vermeulen[3], 2006). According to Vermeulen (2006), the migration process shapes the
collective identity of migrant groups, which raises the demand for migrant
associations, or contributes to disruption in migrants’ lives that increases
the demand for a safe environment which, in turn, increases the demand for
migrant associations. Other key considerations that influence the migrant
organizing process include the specific characteristics of the migrant
population, such as their size, demographic composition, socioeconomic status
and cultural attributes. The active or passive attitude towards migrant
associations by countries of origin can also influence the formation of migrant
associations.

According to Vermeulen (2006), several factors
play a role in the host society in the migrant organizing process. For instance, the economic opportunity
structure can impact the labour position of migrants at the local level,
motivating them to organize and establish migrant associations, or to join
existing ones. Similarly, migrant accessibility to institutions such as
churches, labour unions and welfare organizations can affect the formation of
migrant associations: If migrants have easy access to these organizations and their services,
the need to      create a migrant association declines. Finally,
scholars identify the political opportunity structure, or official stance
authorities have towards migrants and their organizations, as a critical factor
(Danase, 2001; Hooghe, 2005; Morales & Giugni, 2011; Schrover &
Vermeulen, 2005; Tackle, 2013; Vermeulen, 2006).

Key characteristics of migrant associations

Migrant associations play a key role in providing a space (not necessarily physical) for people from the same
ethnic or national origin to gather, play, dance and reminisce (Moya, 2005),
constituting a key source for socialization, conviviality, mutual aid and
identity renewal. They also assist with the migrant process, contributing to
the socio-economic integration of migrants into the host society by providing a
diversity of social services and community programmes, including advocating for
their ethnic groups needs and concerns and representing them  in host society political and policy
processes, while promoting and preserving connections between migrant
communities in the host country and their country of origin and vice versa
(Cordero-Guzman, 2005; Moya, 2005; Odmalm, 2004).

Migrant associations frequently replace support
systems traditionally provided by the family and the community migrants left
behind, and provide a space for membership recreation, capacity development and
awareness raising of their rights (Castillo & Obadiaru, 2012). They help
migrants to unite and adapt to the often-complicated living conditions in the
host society, supporting them to exercise their ‘voice’ in their host country
as well as their ‘loyalty’ for their countries of origin (Lamba-Nieves, 2018).
Migrant associations can be large and well-established, small and ephemeral,
more or less formally structured, with very specific objectives, such as promoting the integration of migrant women in the labor market
in a particular city, or with relatively broader objectives, such as promoting the culture of a particular country in
the host society.

As such, it is evident that migrant
associations have a diverse character. It is also important to recognize that
they are dynamic, and these characteristics can change over time (Lamba-Nieves,
2018; Schrover and Vermeulen, 2005). For instance, objectives and their
specificity can evolve, as can the formality of the associations’ structure and
processes.

Developing and managing an association is
time-consuming and requires that some members invest substantial time in planning and implementing activities and events, fundraising, and
networking with other migrant associations, civil organizations and/or public
authorities.  Association board members
and other volunteers often work beyond normal working hours, after their
regular jobs elsewhere. Their involvement is usually without financial
compensation, unless the association has developed a stable structure and
financial solvency (Castillo & Obadiaru, 2012; Matthey & Stainer,
2009).

Migrant associations normally have limited
financial means, with funds generated primarily through activities, donations
or membership fees, and sometimes, public
contributions. They also have time limitations, as most
active members in charge of managing the association and organizing activities are volunteers, providing
in-kind service.[4]

Tensions within and between migrant
associations and with civic organizations and authorities

Tensions and conflicts within and between
migrant associations are not uncommon, and similar challenges often arise
between these associations and other civil society organizations or
authorities. Tension within migrant associations is largely due to power
struggles or differences regarding decisions over associations’ objectives and
activities (Cammozi, 2011) and between migrant associations or with other civic
organizations as a result of competition for support from a target population
and funding available (Fennema & Tillie, 1999; Odmalm, 2004; Sardinha,
2009; Schover & Vermeulen, 2005; Vermeulen, 2006). Tension between migrant
associations and authorities results from migrant mistrust of host country
institutions, when political participation and representation to consultative
bodies do not give real power to migrant associations, or when migrant
associations’ citizen engagement performs unpaid tasks that should be the
responsibility of local authorities (Mantovan, 2013[5], Moret & Dahinden, 2009, Vermeulen, 2006). While these sources of
tension vary, they are nevertheless important factors to consider for the
functioning of migrant associations.

Migrant associations’ role on integration:
Their commitments and practices in the host society

Migrant associations play a central role in the
settlement process and the integration of migrants into the host society in a several ways, including: membership and services provided to members and others
(Kindler et al., 2015); the socialization
of migrants in the host society; provision of advice and related support for
employment and housing (socio-economic integration); introducing cultural
practices specific to the host country (cultural integration); the
dissemination of relevant information in relation to migrant rights, and the
provision of services for migrants and the institutions that offer those
services (political integration).

At the same time, migrant associations
facilitate potential active citizenship in the host society through engaged
participation within the association, provide networking opportunities with
community organizations, and act as a point of contact and
coordination between migrants, local government and other institutions
(Somerville, Durana, Terrazas, 2008). As Shrover and Vermeulen (2005) point
out, even when associations are not notable in activity and influence, they are
still relevant for understanding migration and integration processes.

While some scholars (and policymakers) support
the positive influence migrant associations have on integration, others claim
that migrant associations can hinder the development of personal relationships
with host country natives and retard the process of integration[6] given that they are established along ethnic lines (Sardinha, 2009).

Putnam’s distinction between bonding and
bridging social capital is helpful when considering the dichotomy between
positive or negative influences of migrant association on integration (Putnam, 2000). Basically, bonding capital brings together people who are alike, such as family, friends and where ‘strong ties’ are present Whereas bridging capital brings together people
who are different from each other, such as distinct social or ethnic groups, where      the ties between them are weak
(Kindler, 2015).  If the migrant
association is a vector of bonding capital exclusively, it might hinder the
integration process of its members, isolating them from the host society. On
the other hand, if the association is a vector of bridging capital, it can
support the integration process of its members.

Even more influential than a migrant
association’s type and degree of social capital, is the degree of support from
host societies to migrant associations. According to Schrover and Vermeulen,
(2005), in contexts where migrants are seen as ‘foreign temporarily residents’
and state policy limits its role in integration to legal procedures, migrant
association activities are often unwelcome or even perceived as threatening,
and consequently banned or strongly controlled. In contrast, in societies that
are more receptive and open - ‘migrant societies’ - migrants are approached as
citizens with easier access to nationality, and migrant associations’ activities are regarded as helpful in the integration process and very
often funded.

As Cordero-Guzman (2005) points out, one of the
key challenges for migrant associations is to achieve both the process of
integration while at the same time, recognising and preserving their cultural
practices. However, migrant associations do not see any contradiction in
simultaneously assisting their members with the process of integration in the
host society and also preserving thecultural and ethnic identities associated with
customs, ethics, traditions and norms. This dual task makes them rather dynamic
because they need to integrate and adjust themselves to new cultural practices
brought in by new members, and further adhere to the requirements and pressures
from the changing environment where they operate.

Migrant associations’ homeland engagements:
Their commitments and practices in countries of origin

Most migrant associations are in contact with
their countries of origin either sporadically or on a more regular and
structured basis. According to Van Ewijk & Nijenhui (2016), they can play a
variety of roles such as intermediaries between home and host societies: for
lifecycle events, such as marriage, child birth, and funerals; for payments of
community taxes back home; for political activism, undertaking advocacy work,
affiliating with a political party or participating in political elections; as
a charity organization, raising resources to support a specific projects; as
professional development organization, carrying out development projects, such
as providing short-term aid in the form of disaster relief or through
government matching-funds programmes (Munoz & Collazo, 2014); or by
stimulating development through knowledge networks, sharing and transfer
through highly skilled migrants (Meyer, 2007).

When migrant associations focus on contributing
to development in their countries of origin, they usually pool together
resources to be invested in basic infrastructure and communication projects.
These funds transferred to countries of origin are known as ‘collective
remittances’, and while they are low in number in comparison to individual
remittances, they nevertheless are an important source of aid with the
potential to impact the quality of life of a wider population than individual
recipients of remittances (Orozco, Garcia-Zanello, 2009). It is worth noting
that this kind of collective initiatives not only focus on the financial
support, but also on collective social remittances which “are exchanged by individuals in their role as organisational members
and are used in organisational settings such as hometown associations, church
groups or political parties” (Levitt and Lamba-Nieves, 2011, p. 13).

In order to increase the impact and
sustainability of development projects and programmes, migrant associations
often establish partnerships with governmental and non-governmental
organizations, or the private sector (Haas et
al., 2009), as well as with local informal and
formal counterparts, such as family members, local civic society organizations
(e.g. NGOs), or even an organization established by the migrant association, specifically for project implementation (Van Ewijk & Nijenhui,
2016). The engagement with migrants and their associations for development has
become an important strategy of many countries of origin. However, as De Haas
(2006) points out, it is important for those states, as well as engaging
development agencies and other partnering development actors, to create durable
alliances with migrant associations. This includes such elements as a joint
agenda or strategy to address shared priorities; collaboration with their
existing initiatives and joint investment schemes for social and economic
projects; strengthening networks and knowledge sharing; providing capacity
building and technical assistance for community development and advocacy for
human rights, and legal support for justice for
community members.

According to Faist and Fauser (2011), the
potential of this strategy lies in the role of migrants through
migrant associations, their transnational practices and networks, in addition
to the NGO’s support. However, this potential development role of migrant
associations is not without risk because scaling up their role and responsibilities could be ‘overwhelming and
counterproductive’ and undermine their capacity for empowerment. Related, migrant associations often face organizational
restraints or weakness (Delgado Wise, 2014) and can be perceived by development
agencies and states as mere operators and not as participants in the design and
decision-making process (Lacomba & Escala Rabadan, 2013). They support
themselves with interventions, but it can be hard to support migrant associations’ work with local communities without the local
community’s ownership towards the proposed projects (Orozco, Garcia-Zanello,
2009). There can also be harmful competition between migrant and non-migrant
groups (Lamba-Nieves, 2018). In addition, migrant associations’ projects can
also be constrained by restrictive migration policies and conditioned
international cooperation aiming at controlling migrants’ flows (Faist &
Fauser, 2011).

Nevertheless, the dual ‘presence’ of migrant
associations in both origin and destination societies gives them a privileged
position as they know both realities; while this is not a guarantee for
success, it does offer potential for development partnerships if collaboration
and implementation are well planned, monitored, and evaluated, with shared
responsibility and local ownership.

Migrant
Associations: Enhancing Migrant Agency and Advancing Social Justice

Migrant associations play a crucial role in empowering migrants and
advancing social justice by offering information or referral for essential
services, facilitating integration, advocating for their rights, and fostering
social and political participation. Their efforts contribute to strengthening
migrant agency, ensuring socio-economic and social inclusion, and improving
access to legal protections. Below are the main ways in which migrant
associations contribute to enhancing migrant agency and advancing social
justice:

Social and Cultural
Empowerment

Migrant associations serve as spaces where migrants can maintain their
cultural identity while integrating into the host society. These organizations
offer language courses, cultural events, and social activities that help
migrants navigate their new environment while preserving their heritage (Cordero-Guzmán,
2005; Kindler et al., 2015). By fostering a sense of belonging, they strengthen
the psychological well-being of migrants, reducing isolation and
marginalization (Portes et al., 2007). These migrant-led organizations also
address social justice by advocating for housing rights and access to social
services. Migrants often face barriers to housing and healthcare (Eggert &
Pilati, 2014).

The social and cultural empowerment role played by migrant associations
can be analyzed in the following key areas:

•       Cultural identity
preservation, community building: Migrant associations provide a sense of
belonging and solidarity, helping migrants connect with others from similar
backgrounds. These organizations help migrants maintain and celebrate their
cultural identity while also promoting intercultural exchange with the host
society. This support network reduces isolation and strengthens social
cohesion.

•       Access to information and
referral for services: Migrant associations provide vital information about
local laws, customs and opportunities, helping migrants navigate their new
environments effectively. They often facilitate referrals to essential services
such as health, housing, education, and employment.

•       Support for undocumented
migrants: Associations often assist undocumented migrants by providing legal
aid, emergency housing, and employment support.

In the UK, the Latin American Women’s Rights Service (LAWRS), an organization
that supports Latin American migrant women, many of whom work in precarious,
low-wage jobs as cleaners, nannies, or in the hospitality sector, and empowers
migrant women by providing safe spaces for gender-based violence survivors,
offering language courses, and supporting cultural initiatives. Similarly, in
Switzerland, Colombia Vive, a cultural and solidarity-focused
association based in Lausanne, Switzerland, promotes Colombian culture and
fosters social connections within the Colombian community residing in
Switzerland and enhances cultural exchange while advocating for better integration
policies for Colombian migrants. Also in Switzerland, Asociación Bolivia 9 and Asociación
Cultural Peru, aim to valorise the identity, traditions and culture of their
respective country of origin and favour their members’ integration process.
These associations also support migrants in vulnerable situations by
facilitating referrals to relevant authorities or civil society organizations
that can provide the necessary services and assistance.

Economic Empowerment and
Labour Rights Advocacy

Many migrant associations focus on labor rights advocacy, job training,
and economic self-sufficiency.
Migrants, especially those in precarious jobs, face exploitation, wage theft,       poor working conditions, and high risks to occupational
safety and health. These migrant-led organizations also address economic
inequalities by advocating for fair labor conditions as migrants often face discrimination in
the labor market and exploitation by employers (Eggert & Pilati, 2014).

Research by Eggert and Pilati (2014) highlights that migrant
associations often act as intermediaries between workers and employers, helping
to establish fair employment conditions. Fennema and Tillie (1999) further
argue that associations contribute to migrant economic mobility by creating job
networks and skill development programs, increasing their employability in host
societies.

Migrant associations’
economic empowerment and labour rights advocacy role can be analyzed in the
following key areas:

•       Employment support and skills development: Migrant
associations offer job training, career counselling and entrepreneurship programs that
enhance employability.

•       Microfinance and business
support: Some associations provide financial assistance, microloans, or
business development programs to help migrants start and sustain businesses.

•       Labor rights and fair
wages: Many migrant associations advocate for fair working conditions,
protection against labor exploitation, and access to job opportunities for
migrants.

In Spain, the Asociación
Rumiñahui Hispano-Ecuatoriana, an organization aiming to promote the integration
of Latin American migrants in Spain and defend their rights, provides legal
assistance on immigration and employment issues, offers training programs to
improve employability and professional skills. Similarly, in the UK, the Latin
American Women’s Rights Service (LAWRS) runs employment workshops to help women
gain financial independence, as they often face exploitation, gender-based
violence and immigration challenges. In Chile, Asociacion de Emprendedores
Migrantes (ASEM), an organization founded by and for migrants, promotes the
economic inclusion of migrant communities through entrepreneurship,
facilitating access to small loans and financial resources, offering workshops,
mentoring and capacity building programmes focused on business development,
financial literacy and digital marketing.

Legal and Political
Empowerment

Migrant associations play an essential role in advocating for migrants’
legal rights and increasing their political participation. Many associations
provide legal aid, guidance on immigration processes (Somerville et al., 2008).
These migrant-led organizations serve as key actors in advocating for policy
changes and challenging discriminatory laws. By mobilizing communities and
engaging in political activism and civic life, these organizations help shape
migration policies and legal frameworks that uphold human rights (Morales &
Giugni, 2011).

Morales and Giugni (2011) argue that migrant associations contribute to
social justice by bridging the gap between migrant communities and political
institutions. In societies that embrace multiculturalism and migrant
participation, associations serve as mediators, ensuring that migrant
perspectives are included in policy-making processes. According to Schrover and Vermeulen (2005),
the extent to which migrant associations can influence legal and political
frameworks depends on the political opportunity structure of the host country.
In countries where migrant organizations are recognized as legitimate political
actors, they are more effective in advancing legal protections for migrants.

Migrant associations’
legal and political empowerment role can be analyzed in the following key
areas:

•       Legal assistance,
protection and human rights advocacy: Many associations provide legal aid
services to help migrants with residency, work permits, asylum applications,
and other legal matters. They also work to defend migrants' rights, influence
migration policies, and challenge discriminatory practices, xenophobia and
human rights violations.

•       Empowering migrants as
civic and political actors: Migrant associations encourage      political engagement by
supporting migrants' voting rights, representation in local governments, and
participation in decision-making processes.

•       Grassroots mobilization:
Many migrant associations organize protests, petitions, and community-led
initiatives to push for more inclusive policies.

In the United States, Alianza
Americas, a network of Latin American and Caribbean migrant-led organizations
works to influence immigration policies while providing legal workshops to
undocumented migrants. For instance,  one
notable example is their advocacy for the expansion of Temporary Protected
Status (TPS) designations in the US. In January 2021, Alianza Americas,
alongside other organizations, met with U.S. Representative Darren Soto (D-FL)
and Senator Tim Kaine (D-VA) to discuss expanding TPS for individuals from
countries experiencing crises, such as Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador,
Nicaragua, Colombia, and Ecuador. This advocacy contributed to policy
discussions and decisions regarding TPS designations. The network organization
has developed the toolkit “Know Your Rights”, elaborated by its member organizations and
allies in their fight for migrant rights to help keep their communities
informed and protected.

Social Capital, Community
Building and Solidarity

Migrant associations also empower individuals by creating strong
community networks that facilitate both bonding and bridging social capital
(Putnam, 2000). Cederberg (2012) highlights the role of migrant associations in
creating both bonding and bridging social
capital. Bonding capital strengthens internal community ties, while
bridging capital fosters connections with the wider society, facilitating
integration and reducing discrimination. Migrant associations that successfully
engage in both forms of capital-building contribute to social cohesion and
justice.

Migrant associations contribute to social justice by fostering community
solidarity and mutual aid, which are essential for reducing marginalization and
exclusion. Through networks of support, migrants gain access to resources,
information, and protection against discrimination (Putnam, 2000). A study by
Kindler et al. (2015) emphasizes that associations that engage in bridging
capital activities —such as policy advocacy, intercultural dialogue, and
networking with local institutions— are more effective in supporting long-term
integration and empowerment.

Migrant associations’
social capital, community building and solidarity role can be analyzed in the
following key areas:

•       Bridging migrant and host
communities: Migrant associations foster dialogue and cooperation between
migrants and local populations, reducing stereotypes and promoting mutual
understanding while fostering their integration.

•       Collaboration with relevant
actors: They serve as intermediaries between migrants and government agencies,
NGOs, and other support networks.

In Switzerland, the Asociación Colombia Vive play a bridge role between
the Colombian and other Latin American migrants and the Swiss society,
providing information to their members about how to navigate the Swiss
administrative, cultural, political and economic realities. In Spain, Fedelatina, a federation of Latin
American migrant associations, promotes equal rights through policy advocacy,
anti-discrimination initiatives, and cultural programs that foster integration
into Spanish society. In addition, it facilitates collaboration between migrant
communities and Spanish institutions to improve access to education,
healthcare, and legal rights.

Humanitarian support and
crisis response

During crises, migrant associations play a vital role in providing
humanitarian aid, ensuring that vulnerable migrants receive the necessary
support to survive and rebuild their lives. Their efforts are particularly
important in contexts where state support is inadequate or inaccessible to
migrants (Lacroix, 2016). During the COVID-19 pandemic, many migrant-led
organizations stepped up to provide food aid, medical services, and financial
assistance to undocumented migrants who were excluded from government support
programs.

According to Sardinha (2009), migrant associations that engage in
humanitarian work not only address immediate needs but also contribute to
long-term social justice by advocating for systemic changes that protect
vulnerable populations.

Migrant associations’
humanitarian support and crisis response roles can be analyzed in the following key areas:

•       Emergency relief and
assistance: Migrant associations play a critical role during crises (e.g.,
natural disasters, economic downturns, or public health emergencies) by
providing food aid, shelter, and medical support to vulnerable migrant
populations.

•       Mental health and
well-being: Many associations offer counseling, community support groups, and
wellness programs to help migrants cope with trauma, discrimination, and social
isolation.

In Spain,
the Asociación Por Ti Mujer —a non-profit organization based in
Valencia—works to address the structural barriers that limit the full
citizenship and rights of migrant women, particularly those who are survivors
of gender-based violence or at risk of psychosocial exclusion. During the
COVID-19 pandemic, the organization provided crucial mental health support to
migrant women, helping them navigate heightened vulnerabilities during the
crisis. (Tutistar, Muñoz. & Polo, 2022)

Conclusions

Migrant associations play a pivotal role in enhancing migrant agency and
advancing social justice. By fostering social inclusion, advocating for human
and labor rights, providing legal assistance, and facilitating political
participation, these organizations empower migrants to navigate structural
barriers and claim their rights. Their efforts not only mitigate economic
vulnerabilities, legal insecurities, and social exclusion but also contribute
to the broader goal of building more equitable and inclusive societies.

Beyond individual empowerment, migrant associations drive systemic
change by aligning their advocacy efforts with key social justice principles,
including non-discrimination, equality of treatment, equity, recognition, and
participation. Rather than functioning solely as service providers, these
organizations enable migrants to become active agents in shaping their
communities. Through education programs, employment support, and legal aid,
they enhance migrants’ capabilities and facilitate their full participation in
society. Moreover, by challenging discriminatory policies and practices,
migrant associations promote greater equity and inclusion within host
communities.

The study of migrant associations is inherently multifaceted,
encompassing their contributions to integration, social capital formation, and
transnational engagement. As catalysts for both individual and collective
empowerment, these organizations strengthen social networks, preserve cultural
heritage, and foster solidarity among migrant communities. However, their
ability to sustain and expand their initiatives is often constrained by limited
funding and institutional support, which presents a significant challenge to
their long-term impact.

Despite these challenges, migrant associations remain fundamental in
advocating for migrants’ rights and supporting their integration into host
societies. Their work underscores the need for policy frameworks that recognize
and collaborate with migrant-led organizations to ensure more inclusive and
just societies. As migration continues to shape global landscapes, the role of
migrant associations in empowering individuals, fostering social cohesion, and
driving systemic change will remain indispensable.

Future research should further examine the innovative strategies that
migrant associations employ to navigate financial and institutional
constraints, as well as explore how these organizations can enhance their
impact across diverse sociopolitical contexts. Ultimately, migrant associations
are not only vital for enhancing migrant agency but also for advancing broader
struggles for social justice, equity, and human rights.

Acknowledgements

The author
sincerely appreciates Global Migration Policy Associates (GMPA) for the
invitation to contribute to this RTE special section on social justice. A
special thanks to Patrick Taran, GMPA President, for his invaluable insights
and our enriching conversations on the significance of this topic.

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[1]
This section is an extract of the author’s PhD dissertation on Andean migrant
associations’ host and home country engagement. Lessons from the Cantons of
Geneva and Vaud, Switzerland, University of Geneva.

[2]
Credit and business associations, mutual benefit societies, religious, sport,
educational and recreational groups, hometown and women associations, student
organizations, solidarity institutions and political and advocacy groups
(Breton, 1964; Moya 2005; Vermeulen, 2006; Sardinha, 2009).

[3]
The author researched and documented the structural determinants of the
migration organizing process comparing three migrant groups in two different
cities (Turks in Amsterdam, Turks in Berlin and Surinamese in Amsterdam) and
provided evidence of the influence of migrant group, host society and internal
dynamics within groups of organizations in the migrant organizing process.

[4]
“In kind” refers to goods, services, and transactions not involving money or
not measured in monetary terms.

[5]
Mantovan, “Cohesion without Participation: Immigration and Migrants’
Associations in Italy.”

[6]
Sardinha uses the term “cultural adaptation.”