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Elpresen=
teartículotienecomoobjetivocaracterizarlosdronesnotripuladosempleadosenlas nuevasestrategiasde=
defensamilitarmundial,tomandoencuentalosdesarrollostecnológicos asociadosalainteligenciaartificialyrobótica.Entalsentido,seprocedióarealizarunestudio
decarácterdocumental,conducenteaidentificarlosdesarrollos<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.4pt'> másrepresentativos=
existentes
enelmercadodedronesautónomosmilita=
res,contemplandosusimplicacio=
nesenelescenario bélico presente y
futuro. El estudio estableció las implicaciones que está toma=
ndo
las armas autónomasenlageopolíticamundial,suponiendocambiosenlamaneradeincorporartecnologías
inteligentesenbuscademejorarlaautonomíadelosdronesparaafrontarlosrequerimientosde defensa y ataque, que demanda los nuevos escenarios del campo de
batalla.Este panoramada a entreverpara lospr&oa=
cute;ximos
añosel incrementode dronescomo armaslet=
ales
debajo costoy altaprecisión,cuyodespliegueendiversosescenariosserámásefectivoenoperacionesmilitares
de diversa índole.
robotics.Inthissense,adocumentarystudywascarriedouttoidentifythemostrepresentative developments in the =
market
of autonomous military drones, observing their implications in present and
future war scenarios. The study established the implications that autonomous
weapons are taking in global geopolitics, assuming changes in the way of
incorporating intelligenttech=
nologiestoimprovetheautonomyofdronestofacetherequirementsofdefense
and attack demanded by the new battlefield scenarios. This scenario gives a
glimpse of the comingyearsoftheincreaseofdronesaslethalweaponsoflowcostandhighprecision,whose deploymentinvariousscenarioswillbemoreeffectiveinmilitaryoperationsofvariouskinds.
Drones,
or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), have been used in the military field for
years.Thesevehicleshave<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.45pt'> becomeincreasinglypopular inthemilitaryfieldduetotheirability tocarryoutsurveillance,reconnaissance, andattackmissionswithoutendangeringthesoldiers&#=
8217;
lives.Thesedronescanbecontrolledremotely,flyingforlonghours,whichmakesthemideal
for surveillance and reconnaissance missions, proving to be a valuable tool=
for
their ability to reach areas that could be dangerous or inaccessible to the
soldier.
=
Military
drones have unique features that differentiate them from civilian drones. F=
or
example, they can be equipped with high-resolution cameras and other advanc=
ed
surveillance equipmenttogatherinformationabouttheterrainandtheenemy.Somearealsoequippedwith smart weapons that allow them to
attack specific targets with a high degree of accuracy.
=
While
drones have many advantages in the military field, they have also generated
controversyduetoconcernsabouttheprivacyandethicsoftheiruseinmilitaryattackswithout the assi=
stance
of a human controller (Asaro, 2020; Waxman, 201=
9). In
addition, there are concerns about the safety of these drones, as they can =
be
shot down or hacked by the enemy.
=
Researchobjectives
Generalobjective
Characterize the
unmanned drones used in the new global military defense strategies, conside=
ringthetechnologicaldevelopmentsassociatedwit=
hartificialintelligencea=
ndrobotics.
=
Specificobjectives
• =
Identif=
ythemostrepresentativedevelopmentse=
xistinginthemarketofautonomous military
drones.
• =
Establi=
sh
the implications of autonomous weapons in world geopolitics and their impac=
t on
the present and future war scenarios.
• =
Analyze=
the
expected changes in incorporating intelligent technologies to improve the
autonomy of drones to face the defense and attack requirements in the new
battlefield scenarios.
<=
/span>
=
phases:
Methodology
The =
researchmethodologywasdocumentaryinnature,whichissummariz=
edinthree=
1.Selection: 50 relevant documents spanning ten year=
s,
from 2013 to 2023, were selected forthisstudy.Thesedocumentsincludedacademicjournals,newsarticles,
and reports from government agencies and industry.The documents were selected based on their relevance to the
topic under study.
2.Collection: =
Aninitialsearchwasconductedusingkeywords=
relatedtotheresearch objectives in databases and online search engines.
Relevant documents were then examined for relevance, credibility, and date =
of
publication.
3.Analysis and interpretation: The data was interpre=
ted
considering the research questions and the theoretical framework. The findi=
ngs
were used to answer the research questions and develop a deeper understandi=
ng
of the object of study.
=
Literaturereview
Unmannedcombataerialvehicles(UCAVs)
Drone
technology is advancing daily, as well as its applications in different are=
as
(Márquez,2017),withexponentialgrowthinthemilitaryfieldinthelastdecade.Inthissense, there are reconnaissance and combat drones, known as
unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAV), with action radii in the order of 3=
000
km and altitude ceilings exceeding 6 km. The speedofthisgenerationofdronescaneasilyexceed300km/h,asisthecaseoftheKratos<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.35pt'> XQ- 58AValkyriedrone(Harper,2023),which,apartfrombeingdifficulttodetectbyradar,canact
as a support system for aircraft such as the F-15EX or the F-35, either to
assist in an attack or defense, having sufficient payload capacity to carry
air-to-ground and air-to-air missiles.
=
Given
the particularity of the Valkyrie, it has been taken as a reference point f=
or
new technologicaldevelopments=
thatworkinconjunctionwithfleetsofmannedaircraft,wherejoint
communicationallowscoordinatedattacksanddefensewithoutanyinterference,whoseshared
information is encrypted.
=
In
the short term, it is expected that UCAVs will act as support on the battle=
field
with a greater deployment, where programming sponsored by artificial
intelligence (AI) will be a determinin=
gpointofsuccesswhentheseaircraftgointoaction,sinceapartfromattackingtargets,
they can act as an early warning system for pilots, and even decidin=
g to
sacrifice themselves protecting their aircraft.
T
tanker-type UCAVs are used to fuel fighter aircraft, resulting in reduced c=
osts
and personnel risk. For example, Boeing’s MQ-25 Stingray drone (Naval
Base Ventura County, 2020)hasanadvancedcommunicationssystemforintelligencetasks,whichisveryusefulwhen small,
agile and difficult to detect by enemy radar is
required.
=
Table1showssometypesofmilitarydronesinservice=
.Notethatthisisnotanexhaust=
ive listandthattheremaybeothertypesofdroneswithdifferentspecifications. Also,capabilities andspecifications areconstantlyevolvingandimproving,sotheinformationinthistablemay become outdated over time.
=
Withthenotoriouseaseofdevelopmentandtheconsequentproductionofdrones, thedroneindustry hasbeenboostedworldwide,facilitating<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:1.1pt'> missionsequivalenttothoseof
a conventional fighter plane at a fraction of the operational cost, such as
patrolling, tactical reconnaissance andevenindividualorcoordinatedattacks.DronesofthistypearetheCHand
WingLoongseriesthatChinahasbeguntocommercializeoutsideitsborders,makingitpossible
for other countries to join this new arms race of low cost and high
lethality.
Anotherlineofactionofdronesistheofthekamikazetype(Kovačević&Vulić, 2021;
Liao,2020),whichhitsotherdronesorfixedormobilemilitarytargetstominimizetheriskof themattackingfirst.Withthismodality,theriskofneutralizingatargetwithoutusingweapons thatcanbedangerousinanurbanenvironmentorincriticalfacilitiesissimplified(Mair,2020; Sa=
uer,
2020).his task is effective by
providing drones with a LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)radarthatmapsinformationin3D,complementedbyelectro-optic=
alsystems,sensors (infrared,chemi=
cal,opticalandgeomagnetic),artificialvisionandelectronicjammingsystems =
for
early detection; in addition, they have blocked an attack of one or several
UCAVs, either day or night (Song, 2021).
=
Another
feature of this type of drone is that they have a detection range that vari=
es
between10and20km,excludinghumaninterventionindecision-making.Asaparticularcase is the Guard drone technology, which, as Navarro (2020)
points out, “has radars designed for short-range air defense and a
communications intelligence module that detects, classifies and identifies a
threat based on the analysis of frequencies and communication protocols use=
d by
the target drone” (n.p).
=
The
development of this technology continues as drones on the market pursue hum=
an
targets and set ambushes, as is the case of Lanius, ideal for urban warfare.
This Israeli-made drone is transported in a mother ship that can fly in clo=
sed
enclosures, such as buildings or tunnels,searchingforitstargetregardlessoftheobstaclesitencountersonitsway,thankstoits
AIsystemintegratedinto<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.2pt'> aspecificchip.ItalsoincorporatesaSLAMalgorithm(Diaz,2022), which allo=
ws it
to simultaneously locate and map its environment using image processing to
identify points of interest, generating relevant identification information
(friend or foe) for its
Arecent DARPAground autonomous robotics initiative called the RACER (Rob=
otic
Autonomy in Complex Environments with Resilience) program (Ackerman, 2022b)
aims to developnewautonomousdronetechnolo=
gies(Marquez,2021)forall-terraincombatvehicles,
allowing them to maneuver out of a two-dimensional field into a
three-dimensional one. The idea of this system is to emulate human’s
driving, taking into account speed and endurance=
in
simulation patterns and advanced platforms, which must be superior to those
used in civilian autonomous vehicles. Additionally, the vehicle is prepared=
for
battle operations, whose displacement must be fast and, in the process,
activate its defenses if necessary.
Another
advanced drone project belongs to Australia,
with Boeing’s Loyal Wingman, equipped with AI-controlled systems to
perform multiple tasks on the battlefield, such as surveillance,aerialreconnaissance,andintelligence,witharangeofcloseto4000kmprovided by its jet engines.
=
One
aspect to mention, based on Russia’s recent invasion of Ukraine, is t=
he
role of these two nations’ massive use of drones. In the case of Ukra=
ine,
it employed the Turkish- built BayraktarTB2
drone (Rodriguez, 2022), proving to be an invaluable piece in increasing
resistance against Russian troops. The
drone has the capability to conduct short and medium- range missile strikes,
whose advanced electronics allow it to coordinate its attack with two ground
control stations. This drone has proven its worth in other latitudes, such =
as
Libya, KarabakhandSyria,whichiswhyseveralnationshavepurchaseditduetoitseffectivenesson the battlefield.
UnmannedUnderwaterVehicles(UUVs)
The
autonomous drone developed by Northrop Grumman and Martin Defense Group, ca=
lled
Manta Ray, performs underwater and surface tasks. This device can operate f=
or
long periodswithoutanymaintenanceorhumansupport,performinglong-duration=
civilormilitary missionswithoutassist=
anceeventransportingpayloads.Otherrecently=
operationalunderwater drones belongingtotheU.S.NavyincludefunctionsequivalenttotheMantaRay,theOrcaand the
Snakehead classified as extra-large UUV(Mapson,
2022), which have advanced technologies in stealth and attack on var=
ious
types of vessels (Coiras & Ridao,
2020; Brierley et al., 2018).
ChinahasitsownbiomimeticUUVthathasbeenoperati=
ngforsomeyears,<=
/span>demonst=
rating that there is competition am=
ong the
great powers to create underwater drones for various purposes, considering =
that
stealth is more significant than other currently operational vessels, making
them ideal for autonomous operations and stealth, as is the case of the Chi=
nese
drone “Robo-Shark”, designed to hunt submarines.
OneresultoftheconflictbetweenUkraineandRussiaisamilitaryUUVcalledKronos, whichcanoperatepilotedorremotely,carryinguptosixtorpedoes,operatingunderwaterorat sea level with great versatility,=
added
to the composite materials with which it is built, which gives it a manta r=
ay
shape and stealth, adsorbing the acoustic waves of any sonar.
=
Arecent two-in-one drone development =
for
civilian and military purposes is the Sea- Air integrated Drone and the KDDI
flying drone, which carries the FIFISH Pro V6 Plus underwaterdrone.Theflyingdronecanhoveronthesurfaceandlandvertically,safelyreleasing
the underwater drone. These devices can be operated by remote contro=
l or
autonomously. In principle,th=
esedroneshavebeencreatedforunderwaterinspection(Liu&Zhang,2019).=
From
the above, it can be inferred that autonomous weapons can be considered as
emergingcybertechnologies,withwell-establishedpurposesinthemilitaryfield,<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.4pt'> whereoneof themisthereductionof warcosts.Therefore,evaluatinghow=
AIisincreasinglyintegratedint=
o these cybertechnologies drives new advances =
in
intelligent strategic systems whose dependence on humans is decreasi=
ng.
In this regard, significant ethical and moral concerns surround the develop=
mentanduseofautonomousweapons,astheyraisequestions=
ofresponsibilityandthe
possibility of unintended consequences such as the violation of internation=
al
law.
AutonomousWeaponsandArtificialIntelligence
Autonomous
weapons are systems that can select and attack targets without human
intervention.These weapons rel=
y on
artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms to identify and eng=
age
targets, with the potential to revolutionize modern warfare by increasing t=
he
speed and accuracy of attacks. Examples of autonomous weapons include drone=
s,
armed robots and missile systems.
AI
gained momentum in recent years, all thanks to increased computational powe=
r.
In the case of the latest generation of UCAVs used for various targeted and
coordinated attacks, it demands intelligent software to perform such action=
s.
Such is the case of the Turkish STM Kargu-2 drones, which in 2020 carried o=
ut
an autonomous attack against the Libyan national army (Sierra, 2021).Aparticularity
of this attack lay in the fact that it was with autonomous systems, technically called Slaughter Bot. D=
rones
operating under this modality are characterized by facial recognition
algorithms and spatial algorithms that allow them to form swarms, even if t=
he
radio and GPS links were blocked, all this autonomously.<=
/p>
=
AreferenceofSlaughterBotdronesistheTurkish-madeAksungur,whichcanoperate overlongdistances=
withaflightaltitudeof6kmabovesealevel.Themostimportantfunctions ofthisaircraftareintelligence,surveillanceandreconnaissance,anddayandnightairattackwith a
diverse armament capacity of close to one ton, such as anti-tank missiles a=
nd
smart missiles for destruction of static and moving targets.
Currently,
no legislation regulates the development of Slaughter Bot and/or similar
weapons, whose primary targets are human beings. The truth of this scenario=
is
that this technology quickly went from science fiction to reality because i=
ts
development was easier due to its low investment, demonstrating its versati=
lity
and high effectiveness in espionage, monitoring and attack operations. China
leads the list of Slaughter Bot technologies exported toseveralcountrie=
swithawideportfolioofunmannedsystems.Similarly,Israel,Iran,Russia,
theUnitedSta=
tesandtheUnitedKingdom,amongothercountries,havetheirownSlaughterbot- type
technology development initiatives.
TheprogrammingofthesedronesisbasedonAI,whichallows,apartfromperforming
biometric analysis in situ, to form swarms, whose coordination makes them m=
ore
assertive when carrying out selective attacks, all thanks to the scalabilit=
y of
intelligent algorithms that evolve permanentlyineachmission.AlthoughthetechnologyofSlaughterbotsisnotnew,the
algorithmsandweaponryarewhereAI,roboticsandadvancedcommunicationnetworksystems
facilitate new developments.
Anotherpotentialapplicationsa=
nddevelopmentofautonomous<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.75pt'> systemsarenanodrones
whosepurposeisfocusedononeoraswarmofthemaccompanyingasoldieronreconnaissance
missions, literally becoming his eyes, monitoring his surroundings, detecti=
ng
improvised explosivedevices,<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.75pt'> oractingasadefenseandattacksystem.Forexample,theU.S.BlackHornet nanodrone was the most advanced a=
t the
time of writing.
Within
their nanoscale technology, these vehicles have an artificial vision system
integratedwithmachinelearningalgorithms,whichallowsthemtodetectthemostlikelyplaces wheretherewouldbeexplosivesorpredeterminedtargets.Thistaskiscomplementedwithdrone sensors
that create a 3D map emulating digital twins (Varas et al., 2020), where the
encrypted data is transmitted to a cloud computing platform to be consulted=
by
different search teams. Thisi=
nformationisprocessedbyanAIthatcommunicatesitbacktoeachnanodronetoobtain
more data to identify the threat more easily.
=
A
civilian application like the nanodrone is
Snapchat’s Pixy mini drone, which autonomously accompanies its user to
record selfies or panoramic shots, and then transfers them wirelessly to the
cell phone.,Apart from being
lightweight, this mini drone has a flight autonomyof5to8hourswitha20-minuterech=
arge.Italsoallowsconfiguringfourflightroutes in which it can float, orbit around its u=
ser
and follow him.
Snapchat’s
Pixy is not the only mini drone on the market, but it is one of the most
complete, which means that in the short term, the competition and the milit=
ary
will develop new, improved versions of Pixy.
=
Security
Current
global security presents a complex dynamic that promises to become even more
acute based on geopolitical and economic instabilities (Deutsche Welle, 2022), leading to military conflicts involving=
the
major powers. Likewise, the possibility of developing new unmanned weapons
capabilities has opened, with the consequent integration of autonomous syst=
ems
for mission-critical military applications, involving portable communication
stations and scalable computing systems, expanding their applications not o=
nly
to the air but also to land, submarine, surface =
and
subsurface operations, even in space.
The
adaptation and scalability of unmanned systems are defined considering that
their application is focused on civil or military missions, which require a
coordinated deployment of multiple technologies to achieve their objective.=
To
this end, they make use of advanced avionics, drones, robotics,AI and the
internet of things, and more recently, perimeter security and edge computin=
g,
among other disruptive technologies, which contribute their share to the continuousimprovementofnewintelligentweaponsandcommunicationssupportforunmanned
systems.Suchisthecaseofdroneswhosetechnologyallowsthemtocarryouthighlyaccurate attacks based on the GPS
movement of a target, collecting metadata from images, photos and files that
are then transmitted through a computer virus, even from SIM cards, infecti=
ng
the target’s electronic device(s).
=
Ahigh-impact military project by the
United States is constructing the flying aircraft carrier, intending to lau=
nch
swarms of combat drones anywhere in the world.The architect of thisde=
velopmentwasDARPA,withtheX-16Gremlinsproject,whichconsistsofmodifyinga LockheedC-130HerculesaircraftintoaplatformforlaunchingX-16Adronesthat,oncetheir missionisover,themothershipwillreceivethemtorefuelintheair.“Thedroneswill beable
Thenextstepofthisprojectistosenddronesdirectlyfromspace,<=
/span>working=
inconjunc=
tion
withafleetofpermanentflyingaircraftcarriers,extendi=
ngtherangeofmonitor=
ingandeventua=
l attack to the entire planet.=
What is
striking about these projects is that human intervention is completelyexcluded.Intheory,withthistypeoftechnology,theseplatforms<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.4pt'> couldbeusedfor
morealtruisticpurposesofascientificnat=
ure,suchasmonitoringtheclimateorpollutionlevels in different areas of the wo=
rld,
among others.
=
Disruptivetechnologiesonthe battlefield
Dronescanbeusedforvariousmilitarypurposes,includi=
ngsurveil=
lance,reconna=
issance,
and attack. In
addition, they offer several advantages over conventional aircraft, includi=
ng
the ability to fly for long periods, operate in hazardous or inaccessible
areas, and be controlled remotely or autonomously on a case-by-case basis.<=
o:p>
=
Polymorphicroboticsisanotherdisruptivetechnologychara=
cterizedbythefactthat
it can change from one form to another depending on environmental condition=
s.
Robots of this type demand more energy for transformation and an accompanyi=
ng
increase in mass in most cases leading to the invention of new elastomers s=
uch
as mechanical metamaterials with reversibleplasticity(Hwangetal.,2022).Thosematerialsbecomeanidealoptiontoelaborate
phasechangemetallicskele=
tonsystemswithswitchablestiffness,proposingnew<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.75pt'> developments of Slaughter Bot-like =
drones
adaptable to the operating environment.
Inthecaseofdesign,developmentandcertifi=
cationofadvance=
dunmanne=
dsystems=
such astheSlaughterBotforapplicationsfocusedonarea,ground,maritimeandspacesecurity,they aresuppo=
rtedbytheobjectivesofthecertificationauthorities’ softwareteamcalledCAST-32A (CAST,2016);thisforthecaseoftheUnitedStates,whichultimatelyisaworldreferencewhose militaryindustry is supported by multi-core=
computational hardware, with partic=
ularattention to synchronization behavi=
or.
=
Slaughter
Bot is an emerging example of disruptive technology, which military forces
worldwide have implemented due to its low development and implementation co=
st
and its high effectiveness in critical operations related to selectively
nullifying targets, where human influence in decision -making is suppressed=
. In
strategic and defensive terms, this type of technology proves to be an ideal
weapon, even at the metropolitan level (Márquez, 2018), giventhatits“payload,performanceand<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.7pt'> autonomouscapabilitiesgro=
wrapidly”(Bajema,2021<=
/span>
TheSlaughterBot,inconjunctionwith=
otheradvancedunmannedsystems(MQ-9 Reaper, Predator C Avenger, RQ-4 G=
lobal
Hawk, Wing Loong 3 and 1E, CH7, FH97A, WJ-700, X-47B, among others), are no=
t a
replacement for conventional weapons, since their functioniscenteredasasupportresourceforthemilitaryandgovernmentagencies.Therefore, prohibiting the use of these technologies is out=
of
the question, for the simple fact that their design, development, and
implementation are fast and do not require an extensive technical and
technological infrastructure, making them an invaluable resource for secret=
and
military operations.=
Advances
related to inertial navigation solutions, leading to the highest accuracy, =
reliability,
redundancy in data handling, scalability and durability, consistency in hos=
tile
environments and rough terrain, interference-proof, and compatible with oth=
er
technologies, are becoming more relevant.
The integration of disruptive technologies such as
Deep Learning, Big data, IoTand Edge computing,amongothers,arecontributingtothedevelopmentandmanagement=
ofautonomous
weapons faster than expected, driving many nations to bet on these type of
weapons due to theirrapiddeploymentandreplacement<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.5pt'> onthebattlefield,suchisthecaseoftheUnitedStates,
with hundreds of incursions in Yemen and Kabul for several years in asymmet=
ric
conflicts (Chehtman, 2017).
Discuss=
ion
Variousciviliangroupshaveexpressedconcernabout<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.05pt'> usingSlaughterBotandsimilar
technologies, excluding morality in making decisions about who lives and di=
es
in a military action,leavingeverythinginthehandsofAIalgorithms
withouthumansupervision.Theproblem
ofestablishing interna=
tional
regulationis becomingincreasinglyacutedueto theproliferation of the autonomous weapons market, where not only the
superpowers are leading the way, but countries such asTurkey, Israel, and Iran, which have seen a lucrative busine=
ss
in selling this typeofweaponrytopoliticallyunstablecountries.Thecriticalaspectofthisissueliesinthefact
thatthistechnologycan=
beeasilycopiedbyterroristgroupsandorganizedcrimewithminimal investment.
Access
to this technology by various military and illegal groups is of concern to =
the internationalcommunitysinceitisdifficulttocontrol,inadditiontothefactthatthedevelopment
of these weapons does not require a robust technological infrastruct=
ure.
ThepossibilityofacquiringSlaughterBotsontheblackmarket<=
/span>ishigh,andnotonlythese <=
/span>devices but also anti-person=
nel
micro-drones, which can be deployed stealthily to selectively track and fix
targets, which turns them into vectors to detonate micro-explosives and even
disperse biological or chemical agents.
=
TheoutlookforSlaughterBotsinthemilitar=
yshowsthattheywillcontinu=
etoprolife=
rate, due to their rapid progress =
in
critical operations, as opposed to other conventional weapons, which makes =
them
ideal for military forces that lack advanced aerial technology and require
rapidresultsonthebattlefieldwhendeploying=
theirtroops.Forexample,inAzerbaijanin2020,
Israeli1KandHaropdro=
neswereemployedintheNagorno-Karabakhconflict(Martin=
,2019). This deployment was attribute=
d to a
small group of individuals who once released, selected their targets
and killed them. In general, these drones can loiter for several hours in a
region until they find their target, which can be weapons, communication
systems or fixed or mobile defense systems, among others.=
Usingintelligentweaponsagains=
thumantargetsisafact,andthemoratoriumisstillon paper. Russel et al. (2021) poin=
ts out
that:
Agreementsareneeded<=
/span>tofacilit=
ateverific=
ationandenforce=
mentofthemorator=
iumandtreatie=
s, including design restriction=
s on
remotely piloted weapons that prevent software conversion to autonomous
operation, as well as industry rules to prevent large-scale illicit
weaponization of civilian drones. (n. p)
Implementing
a moratorium on this type of technology is complex, in part becausethe development of Slaughter Bot-type
systems is easy to carry out, as is the incorporation of intelligent
algorithms, giving drones greater autonomy in their military tasks.
=
WithAI,adroneoraswarmofdronescanbeprogrammedto<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.55pt'> carryouttargetedattacks, turning them into scalable
weapons of mass destruction (WMD), which contain weapons of massagility(WMA)foruseintargetedassaultsusingchemicalorbiologicalagents.Thistype of scenario is
known as drones (Marquez, 2021c), which frames the integration of advanced =
emerging technologies converging to the
development of multicore platforms for critical avionics and robotics
applications.
5.0datacommuni=
cationbuses(Gomez,=
2021)integra=
tedwithnext-ge=
nerationmemorie=
s,which s=
hownewmultith=
readedprocess=
ingarchite=
ctures,thusbreakin=
gtraditi=
onalcomputi=
ngschemes=
, acceleratingSoC(SystemonChip)processeswithhigherspeedratesandlowlatency,essential for technologies that must respond to events in extremely
short times.
=
Avionicsisdesignedtodelimitandcontrolphysicalinterferencepatternsspecifictothe processor cores =
and
the external environment. Likewise, it seeks to optimize the development of=
applicationsthatallowtherationaluseofallcores,minimizingconflictson sharedresources intheprocess,consideringthatAI-basedalgorithmsdemandthem.Withthistypeoftechnology,
SWaPrequirements
(weight, size, and power) increase, becoming a priority when evaluating the=
performanceofautonomous<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.65pt'> andsemi-autonomoussystems,forwhichminiaturizationgoes hand in hand with power and improved thermal dissipati=
on.
What
is perceived from these technological developments is that robotics andAI will be the articulating points =
of the
new generations of autonomous weapons in the future. In this way,attacksbyanypowerorterroristgroupcanbeunpredictable,generatingchaosinsociety in search of geopolitical
imbalance, especially if we take into account that this type of device can<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.4pt'> carryanddetonatedirtybombs(Biancottoetal.,2020;Rumpetal.,2021)which,although theyhavenotyetbeenused,isanissuetocontemplate,takingintoaccountthatmanypolitically unstable countries are
developing their own nuclear initiatives.Also,
there is the potential for autonomous weapons to become vectors for
disseminating biological or chemical agents.
=
Autonomousweaponshaveopenedanewnicheforthearmsrace,wheresuperpowersdo notwanttoleaveanyspaceforadvantageagainsttheircounterparts(Saeed,2017;Jash, 2018; Haosheng<=
/span>,
2021), driving ever more extraordinary advances for which precision and
lethality are essential, being the sentence “shoot and forget” =
more
valid than ever.
On-air
mission tactics, these have been adapting to new possible battle scenarios =
such
as the case of Ukraine-Russia, China-Taiwan or South Korea-North Korea, all
motivated by the flexibility of programming fleets of drones to attack one =
or
several targets in situ, as is the case of the Turkish drone Bayraktar TB2
(Sanchez, 2021), as well as the American
kamikaze dronesSwitchblade(Miller&Chadwick,2018)puttothetestinthesamebattlescenario.Also, PolandplacedattheUkrainianarmy’sdisposaltheFlyEyedrone,whichactedasabackupto thecounter-offensiv=
eshowinginreal-timethelocationoftheenemy,allowingtocoordinatethe assaults to assess the damage subsequently.<=
/span>
kmandaflightautonomyofafullday,withapayloadcapacityofoneandahalftons,allowing it to carry smart weapons =
such
as MK-82s (Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining,2017)andfirecruisemissilesfromtheair.Thisactionthatwasonlypossiblefrom fighter jets and submarines.
In
the case of the Russian military, they employed drones whose similarity in =
some
cases has been inferior to those used by Ukraine. However, the Olan-10 drone
stands out becauseitworksinconjunctionwiththeLeer-3electronicwarfaresystem,consistingofatruck
equipped with Krasukha-4 technology, w=
hich
blocks communications several kilometers around, deactivated at the =
same
time the drones that circulate within its radius of action by interfering w=
ith
their GPS signals (Clark, 2022).
=
With
the use of swarms of drones, the possibility of success of a mission is
expanded since,fromagroup,theprobabilityofdispensingwithsomeofthemisacceptableaslongasthe
objectiveofattackingand/o=
rneutralizingatargetisachieved.Thisallcomesdowntooperating
costs, which are low compared to a single-person aircraft whose value can b=
e 10
to 15 times higher,wherestealthmaynotsuffice.Incorporatingdroneswarmsinsupportoffifthandsixth-
generation fighter aircraft will become a trend in the coming years, provid=
ing
more excellent safety for pilots while increasing defensive and offensive
power.
=
Cooperating
drone swarms are ideal as opposed to employing a single drone, as the workl=
oad
can be divided and respond to different variables in response to environmen=
tal.
Similarly, the development of three-in-one drones that fly, navigate, and h=
over
on the ground will soon become a reality, expanding their multifunctionalit=
y on
the battlefield.
=
Thelow-costarmsraceisgrowing,drivennotonlybythesuperpo=
wers,ascountri=
essuch as=
Israel,=
Turkey,=
India,<=
/span>andIran,amongothers,=
havetheirownR&D=
program=
s.Consequ=
ently,a myriadofpossibilities=
isopeningastowhatwillhappeninthecomingyearsonthebattlefield,
espionage,urbansurveillance,monitoringandtargetedattacks;forwhichtheexistenceoflethal autonomous
weapons raises a broad discussion of their impact on society.
There
are concerns about the ethical implications of using autonomous drones and =
the
possibilitythattheymaybeemployedinwaysthatviolateinternationallaw.Somecriticsargue (Bolaños&a=
mp;Bossano,=
2020;Rivera,2017;Chamayou,2016)thatdronescancarryouttargeted killingsorextrajudicial=
executionswithoutsufficie=
ntoversightoraccountability.Thereisalso uneasiness about the possibilit=
y of
drones being hacked or used as weapons by terrorists or other malicious act=
ors.
=
What
can we expect for the future? Undoubtedly significant advances inAI combined withIoTandquantumcomputing,opensamyriadofdevelopmentpossibilitiesaimedatcreating
and improving the performance of autonomous weapons, increasing the
capacity for massive dataanalysis,improvingcybersecurityanddefensiveintelligence.Withthecurrentgeopolitical
dynamics, what is expected is an intensification of the quantum arms
race, understood as the use of quantum computing integrated with disruptive
technologies applied to the military environment, given its potential to le=
ave
current offensive and defensive systems in tatters.
=
Conclusions
The research
successfully achieved its objectives by characterizing current
and future autonomousmilitary<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:1.3pt'> drones,theirimplicationsfordefensestrategiesandthetechnological
trendsshapingtheirdevelopment.Regardingthespecificobjectives,severalautono=
mousdrone developmentswereidentifie=
dandhowtheyareacceleratingthearmsrace,changingtacticsand strategies, raising concerns ab=
out
proliferation risks, and ethical implications.
=
Autonomous
drones are seen as low-cost but high-impact weapons that will transform fut=
ure
battlefields. This leads to evaluating their role in global security, which=
has
been undergoing substantial changes, accentuating arms competition in the f=
ace
of new warfare demands.
=
Opponentsofthesetechnologies(Johnson,2020;Marks,<=
/span>2020;Slijperetal.,2019)argue thatmilitarydronesmustbeprogrammedwithsomedegreeofethics,raisingissuessuchasthe responsibilityassumedbytheprogrammer(s)ifanautonomoussystemmistakenlykillscivilians.
Likewise,ithasbeenbroughttotheforefronthowthesesystemsareincreasinglylethaland,at some point, violate ethical prin=
ciples
and international law.
Theactionsintendedtobeimplementedinlimitingorprohibitingtechnologiessuchas the
Slaughter Bot or any advanced unmanned system, should be directed in another
direction, more towards the technological aspect than anything else, because
thinking about global control=
ofintelligentweaponsisutopian.However,theeffortbyUNESCO(2021)toadoptthe recommendationontheethicsofartificialintelligenceinits41stmeeting,forwhichtheactions
in this regard are divided, is valued.
=
Moreover,thereisatrendofintegratingAI,IoTandquantumcomputing,amongother
technologies, leading to improved autonomy, lethality, and data processing
capabilities of drones.Future=
dronesareexpectedtohavemultipurposefunctionality=
andoperateinswarms. This scenario
poses several dilemmas, which must be addressed diligently based on the new
global geopolitical landscape. New threats are constantly emerging, so new
drone technology developments are expected, even at the hypersonic level, e=
.g.,
the Turkish Kizilelma drone, taking military and
espionage incursions to a higher level combined with cyber-attacks.
Suggestionsforfutureresearch.
The <=
/span>abovecanbebuiltuponbyanalyzingethical,legalandgovernancedimensions,=
Ackerman, E. (2022). DARPA’s
RACER Program Sends High-Speed Autonomous Vehicles Off-Road For thenextthreeyears,roboticvehicleswillbepushingthelimitsofall-terrainRacing.Recuperadod=
e https://spectrum.ieee.org/darpa-robot-racer<=
/span>
Biancotto, S., Malizia, A., Pin=
to,
M., Contessa, G.M., Coniglio, A. and D›Arienzo,
M. (2020). Analysis of a dirty bombattackinalargemetropol=
itanarea:simulatethedispersionofradioactive=
materials.Journal of
Instrumentation, 15, P02019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/15/02/P0=
2019
Bolaños,C.M.yBossano,=
C.M.(2020).Lasnuevastecnolog&=
iacute;asyelderechointernacionalhumanitari=
o:
Drones armados sin jurisdicción internacional. Revista Científica FIPCAEC, 5(4), 26-49. https://doi.org/10.23857/fipcaec.v5i4.295
Clark, B. (2022). The fall and ri=
se
of Russian electronic warfare the Ukraine invasion has<=
/span>
become an old- fashionedslog,<=
span
style=3D'letter-spacing:-.25pt'> enablingRussiatounleashitselectronicweapons.https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-fall- and-rise-of-russian-electronic-warfare
Haosheng,D.(2021).=
TheAnalysisofCurrentGlobalGovernanceStructureandChallengesofG7Basedonthe
G7 Foreign and Development Ministers’ Meeting 2021. Academia Letters, Article 2346. https://doi. org/10.20935/AL2346=
Jash, A. (2018). China’s Japan Challenge: Region=
al
ambitions and geopolitics of east Asia. Prathibha, M.
S. (Editor).EastAsiastrategicreview.China’sRisingStrategicAmbitionsinAsia(pp.22-34).Avantika Printe=
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Private Limited.
Butts, J. (2020). Draft Environme=
ntal
Assessment Home Basing of the MQ-25A Stingray Carrier-Based UnmannedAirSystematNavalBaseVenturaCounty,PointMugu,California.U.S.Department=
ofthe
Navy, Norfolk.
https://media.defense.gov/2020/Oct/23/2002522625/-1/-1/0/MQ-25A-DEA-FINAL. =
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Rivera, L. E. (2017). Los drones, la
moralidad profunda y las convenciones de la guerra.ISONOMÍA=
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aktar-en-el-conflicto-de-ucrania/
Rump, A., Eder, S., Hermann, C., =
Lamkowski, A., Ostheim, P=
.,
Abend, M., & Port, M. (2021). Estimation of radiation-inducedhealthhazardsfroma“dirtybomb”atta=
ckwithradiocesium underdifferentassault
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dex.php/jmss/article/view/860
=
UNESCO(2021)=
.Informedelacomisión decienciassocialesyhumanas(SHS).Conferenciageneral41ª reunión - París, 41 C.
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379920_spa.page=3D15=
Varas,C.M.,<=
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